Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T18:11:11.928Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Parent–child attachment and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence: A review of empirical findings and future directions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 January 2010

Laura E. Brumariu  and
Kathryn A. Kerns
Laura E. Brumariu*
Affiliation:
Kent State University
Kathryn A. Kerns
Affiliation:
Kent State University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Laura E. Brumariu, Department of Psychology, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the theory and evidence for the links of parent–child attachment with internalizing problems in childhood and adolescence. We address three key questions: (a) how consistent is the evidence that attachment security or insecurity is linked to internalizing symptoms, anxiety, and depression? (b) How consistent is the evidence that specific forms of insecurity are more strongly related to internalizing symptoms, anxiety, and depression than are other forms of insecurity? (c) Are associations with internalizing symptoms, anxiety, and depression consistent for mother–child and father–child attachment? The current findings are consistent with the hypothesis that insecure attachment is associated with the development of internalizing problems. The links between specific insecure attachment patterns and internalizing problems are difficult to evaluate. Father–child and mother–child attachments have a comparable impact, although there are relatively few studies of father–child attachment. No moderators consistently affect these relations. We also propose two models of how attachment insecurity may combine with other factors to lead to anxiety or depression.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 22 , Issue 1 , February 2010 , pp. 177 - 203
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abela, J. R. Z., & Hankin, B. L. (2008). Cognitive vulnerability to depression in children and adolescents: A developmental psychopathology perspective. In Abela, J. R. Z. & Hankin, B. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 35–78). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Abela, J. R. Z., Hankin, B. L., Haigh, E. A. P., Adams, P., Vinokuroff, T., & Trayhern, L. (2005). Interpersonal vulnerability to depression in high-risk children: The role of insecure attachment and reassurance seeking. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 182–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Achenbach, T. M., & McConaughy, S. H. (1992). Taxonomy of internalizing disorders of childhood and adolescence. In Reynolds, W. M. (Ed.), Internalizing disorders in children and adolescents (pp. 19–60). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709–716.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Albano, A. M., Chorpita, B. F., & Barlow, D. H. (2003). Childhood anxiety disorders. In Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.), Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 279–329). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Allen, J. P., Moore, C., Kuperminc, G., & Bell, K. (1998). Attachment and adolescent psychosocial functioning. Child Development, 69, 1406–1419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, J. P., Porter, M., McFarland, C., McElhaney, K. B., & Marsh, P. (2007). The relation of attachment security to adolescents' paternal and peer relationships, depression, and externalizing behavior. Child Development, 78, 1222–1239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amato, P. R. (1994). Father–child relations, mother–child relations, and offspring psychological well-being in early adulthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 1031–1042.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Anan, R. M., & Barnett, D. (1999). Perceived social support mediates between prior attachment and subsequent adjustment: A study of urban African American children. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1210–1222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment: Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 427–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armsden, G. C., McCauley, E., Greenberg, M. T., Burke, P. M., & Mitchell, J. R. (1990). Parent and peer attachment in early adolescent depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 683–697.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bar-Haim, Y., Dan, O., Eshel, Y., & Sagi-Schwartz, A. (2007). Predicting children's anxiety from early attachment relationships. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 1061–1068.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barlow, D. H. (2002). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Barrett, P. M., Rapee, R. M., Dadds, M. M., & Ryan, S. M. (1996). Family enhancement of cognitive style in anxious and aggressive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 187–203.Google Scholar
Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bates, J. E., & Bayles, K. (1988). Attachment and the development of behavior problems. In Belsky, J. & Nezworski, T. (Eds.), Clinical implications of attachment (pp. 253–299). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bates, J. E., Maslin, C. A., & Frankel, K. A. (1985). Attachment security, mother–child interaction, and temperament as predictors of behavior-problem ratings at age three years. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(Serial No. 209), 167–193.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Fearon, R. M. P. (2008). Precursors of attachment security. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 295–316). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Berg-Nielsen, T. S., Vikan, A., & Dahl, A. A. (2002). Parenting related to child and parental psychopathology: A descriptive review of the literature. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 7, 529–552.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birmaher, B., Ryan, N. D., Williamson, D. E., Brent, D. A., Kaufman, J., Dahl, R. E., et al. (1996). Childhood and adolescent depression: A review of the past 10 years. Part I. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 545–552.Google Scholar
Bögels, S. M., & Brechman-Toussaint, M. L. (2006). Family issues in child anxiety: Attachment, family functioning, parental rearing and beliefs. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 834–856.Google Scholar
Bohlin, G., Hagekull, B., & Rydell, A. M. (2000). Attachment and social functioning: A longitudinal study from infancy to middle childhood. Social Development, 9, 24–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Booth, C., Rose-Krasnor, L., McKinnon, J., & Rubin, K. H. (1994). Predicting social adjustment in middle childhood: The role of preschool attachment security and maternal style. Social Development, 3, 189–204.Google Scholar
Bosquet, M., & Egeland, B. (2006). The development and maintenance of anxiety symptoms from infancy through adolescence in a longitudinal sample. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 517–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1 Attachment. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 2. Separation. Anxiety and danger. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 3. Loss. Sadness and depression. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bretherton, I., Ridgeway, D., & Cassidy, J. (1990). Assessing internal working models of the attachment relationship: An attachment story completion task for 3-year-olds. In Greenberg, M., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years (pp. 273–310). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Brown, L. S., & Wright, J. (2003). The relationship between attachment strategies and psychopathology in adolescence. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 76, 351–367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brumariu, L. E., & Kerns, K. A. (2008). Mother–child attachment and social anxiety symptoms in middle childhood. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29, 393–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buist, K. L., Deković, M., Meeus, W., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2004). The reciprocal relationship between early adolescent attachment and internalizing and externalizing problem behaviour. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 351–266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bureau, J. F., Easterbrooks, M. A., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2009). Maternal depressive symptoms in infancy: Unique contribution to children's depressive symptoms in childhood and adolescence? Development and Psychopathology, 21, 519–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burgess, K. B., Marshall, P. J., Rubin, K. H., & Fox, N. A. (2003). Infant attachment and temperament as predictors of subsequent externalizing problems and cardiac physiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 819–831.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, E. A. (1998). A prospective longitudinal study of attachment disorganization/disorientation. Child Development, 69, 1107–1128.Google Scholar
Carlson, E. A., & Sroufe, L. A. (1995). Contribution of attachment theory to developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental Psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theory and methods (pp. 581–616). Oxford: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J. (1994). Emotion regulation: Influences on attachment relationships. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(Serial No. 240), 228–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassidy, J., & Berlin, L. J. (1994). The insecure/ambivalent pattern of attachment: Theory and research. Child Development, 65, 971–991.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassidy, J., & Marvin, R. S., with The MacArthur Attachment Working Group. (1992). Attachment organization in three- and four-year-olds: Procedures and coding manual. Unpublished manuscript, University of Virginia.Google Scholar
Casey, R. J. (1996). Emotional competence in children with externalizing and internalizing disorders. In Lewis, M. & Sullivan, M. W. (Eds.), Emotional development in atypical children (pp. 161–184). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cawthorpe, D., West, M., & Wilkes, T. (2004). Attachment and depression: The relationship between the felt security of attachment and clinical depression among hospitalized female adolescents. Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review, 13, 31–35.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (1984). The emergence of developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 1–7.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (1995). Perspectives on developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theory and methods (pp. 3–20). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Chorpita, B. F., Albano, A. M., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). The structure of negative emotions in a clinical sample of children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 74–85.Google Scholar
Chorpita, B. F., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). The development of anxiety: The role of control in the early environment. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 3–21.Google Scholar
Chorpita, B. F., Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). Perceived control as a mediator of family environment in etiological models of childhood anxiety. Behavior Therapy, 29, 457–476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 87–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compas, B. E., Ey, S., & Grant, K. E. (1993). Taxonomy, assessment, and diagnosis of depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 323–344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Constantine, M. G. (2006). Perceived family conflict, parental attachment, and depression in African American female adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 4, 697–709.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Costa, N. M., & Weems, C. F. (2005). Maternal and child anxiety: Do attachment beliefs or children's perceptions of maternal control mediate their association? Social Development, 14, 574–590.Google Scholar
Costello, E. J., Angold, A., Burns, B. J., Stangl, D. K., Tweed, D. L., Erkanli, A., et al. (1996). The Great Smoky Mountains Study of Youth: Goals, design, methods, and the prevalence of DSM-III-R disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 1129–1136.Google Scholar
Crittenden, P. M. (1994). The Preschool Assessment of Attachment coding manual. Miami, FL: Family Relations Institute.Google Scholar
Crowell, J. A., Fraley, R. C., & Shaver, P. R. (2008). Measurement of individual differences in adolescent and adult attachment. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 599–636). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., & Cicchetti, D. (1990). Toward a transactional model of relations between attachment and depression. In Greenberg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in preschool years. Theory, research and intervention (pp. 339–371). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Dadds, M. R., Barrett, P. M., Rapee, R. M., & Ryan, S. (1996). Family process and child anxiety and aggression: An observational analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 715–734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dallaire, D. H., & Weinraub, M. (2005). Predicting children's separation anxiety at age 6: The contributions of infant–mother attachment security, maternal sensitivity, and maternal separation anxiety. Attachment and Human Development, 7, 393–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dallaire, D. H., & Weinraub, M. (2007). Infant–mother attachment security and children's anxiety and aggression at first grade. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28, 477–492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, P. T., Harold, G. T., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Cummings, E. M. (2002). Child emotional security and interparental conflict. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67(Serial No. 270), 1–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeKlyen, M., & Greenberg, M.T. (2008). Attachment and psychopathology in childhood. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment, theory, research and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 637–666). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
De Minzi, M. C. R. (2006). Loneliness and depression in middle and late childhood: The relationship to attachment and parental styles. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 167, 189–210.Google Scholar
DiFilippo, J. M., & Overholser, J. C. (2000). Suicidal ideation in adolescent psychiatric inpatients as associated with depression and attachment relationships. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 155–166.Google Scholar
Doyle, A. B., & Markiewicz, D. (2005). Parenting, marital conflict and adjustment from early- to mid- adolescence: Mediated by adolescent attachment style? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 97–110.Google Scholar
Durbin, C. E., & Shafir, D. M. (2008). Emotion regulation and risk for depression. In Abela, J. R. Z. & Hankin, B. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 149–178). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Easterbrooks, M. A., & Abeles, R. (2000). Windows to the self in 8-year-olds: Bridges to attachment representation and behavioral adjustment. Attachment and Human Development, 2, 85–106.Google Scholar
Easterbrooks, M. A., Davidson, C. E., & Chazan, R. (1993). Psychosocial risk, attachment, and behavioral problems among school-aged children. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 389–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebata, A. T., & Moss, R. H. (1991). Coping and adjustment in distressed and healthy adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 12, 33–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. A. (2004). Attachment and psychopathology. In Atkinson, L. & Goldberg, S. (Eds.), Attachment issues in psychopathology and intervention (pp. 27–48). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
El-Sheikh, M., & Buckhalt, J. A. (2003). Parental problem drinking and children's adjustment: Attachment and family functioning as moderators and mediators of risk. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 510–520.Google Scholar
Essau, C. A. (2004). The association between family factors and depressive disorders in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 365–372.Google Scholar
Finnegan, R. A., Hodges, E. V. E., & Perry, D.G. (1996). Preoccupied and avoidant coping during middle childhood. Child Development, 67, 1318–1328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fonseca, A. C., & Perrin, S. (2001). Clinical phenomenology, classification and assessment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. In Silverman, W. K. & Treffers, P. D. A. (Eds.), Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Research, assessment, and intervention (pp. 126–158). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fury, G., Carlson, E. A., & Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Children's representations of attachment relationships in family drawings. Child Development, 68, 1154–1164.Google Scholar
Garber, J., & Hilsman, R. (1992). Cognitions, stress, and depression in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 1, 129–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, C., Kaplan, N., & Main, M. (1996). Adult Attachment Interview (3rd ed.). Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley, Department of Psychology.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S., Gotowiec, A., & Simmons, R. J. (1995). Infant–mother attachment and behavior problems in healthy and chronically ill preschoolers. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 267–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldwyn, R., Stanley, C., Smith, V., & Green, J. (2000). The Manchester Child Attachment Story Task: Relationship with parental AAI, SAT and child behaviour. Attachment and Human Development, 2, 71–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodyer, I. M. (2001). Life events: Their nature and effects. In Goodyear, I. M. (Ed.) The depressed child and adolescent (2nd ed., pp. 204–232). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, C. A., & Easterbrooks, M. A. (2000). School-aged children's vulnerability to depressive symptomatology: The role of attachment security, maternal depressive symptomatology, and economic risk. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 201–213.Google Scholar
Granot, D., & Mayseless, O. (2001). Attachment security and adjustment to school in middle childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 530–541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, P. E., Sisitsky, T., Kessler, R. C., Finkelstein, S. N., Berndt, E. R., Davidson, J. R. T., et al. (1999). The economic burden of anxiety disorders in the 1990s. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60, 427–435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gullone, E., Ollendick, T. H., & King, N. J. (2006). The role of attachment representation in the relationship between depressive symptomatology and social withdrawal in middle childhood. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 271–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammen, C., & Rudolph, K. D. (2003). Childhood Mood Disorders. In Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.), Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 233–278). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2005). Depression from childhood through adolescence and adulthood. A developmental vulnerability and stress perspective. In Hankin, B. L. & Abela, J. R. Z. (Eds.), Development and psychopathology (pp. 245–288). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Hardy, C. L., Bukowski, W. M., & Sippola, L. K. (2002). Stability and change in peer relationships during the transition to middle-level school. Journal of Early Adolescence, 22, 117–142.Google Scholar
Harold, G. T., Shelton, K. H., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Cummings, E. M. (2004). Marital conflict, child emotional security about family relationships and child adjustment. Social Development, 13, 350–376.Google Scholar
Hedges, L. V. (1981). Distribution theory for Glass' estimator of effect size and related estimators. Journal of Educational Statistics, 6, 107–128.Google Scholar
Hesse, E. (2008). The Adult Attachment Interview: Protocol, method of analysis, and empirical studies. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 552–598). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hodges, E. V. E., Finnegan, R. A., & Perry, D. G. (1999). Skewed autonomy-relatedness in preadolescents' conceptions of their relationships with mother, father, and best friend. Developmental Psychology, 35, 737–748.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kagan, J., Snidman, N., Arcus, D., & Reznick, J. S. (1994). Galen's prophecy: Temperament in human nature. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Kendall, P. C., Hedtke, K. A., & Aschenbrand, S. G. (2006). Anxiety disorders. In Wolfe, D.A. & Mash, E. J. (Eds.), Behavioral and emotional disorders in adolescents: Nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 259–299). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kenny, M. E. (1987). The extent and function of parental attachment among first-year college students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 17–29.Google Scholar
Kenny, M. E., Moilanen, D. L., Lomax, R., & Brabeck, M. M. (1993). Contributions of parental attachments to view of self and depressive symptoms among early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, 408–430.Google Scholar
Kerns, K. A. (2008). Attachment in middle childhood. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 366–382). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kerns, K. A., Aspelmeier, J. E., Gentzler, A. L., & Grabill, C. M. (2001). Parent–child attachment and monitoring in middle childhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 69–81.Google Scholar
Kerns, K. A., Schlegelmilch, A., Morgan, T. A., & Abraham, M. M. (2005). Assessing attachment in middle childhood. In Kerns, K. A. & Richardson, R. A. (Eds.), Attachment in middle childhood (pp. 46–70). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kobak, R. R., Cole, H. E., Ferenz-Gillies, R., Fleming, W. S., & Gamble, W. (1993). Attachment and emotion regulation during mother–teen problem solving: A control theory analysis. Child Development, 64, 231–245.Google Scholar
Kobak, R. R., Sudler, N., & Gamble, W. (1991). Attachment and depressive symptoms during adolescence: A developmental pathway analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 461–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kobak, R., & Ferenz-Gillies, R. (1995). Emotion regulation and depressive symptoms during adolescence: A functionalist perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 183–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laible, D. J., Carlo, G., & Raffaelli, M. (2000). The differential relations of parent and peer attachment to adolescent adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 9, 45–59.Google Scholar
Lakdawalla, Z., Hankin, B. L., & Mermelstein, R. (2007). Cognitive theories of depression in children and adolescents: A conceptual and quantitative review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 10, 1–24.Google Scholar
Lamb, M. E. (1982). Paternal influences on early socio-emotional development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 23, 185–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamb, M. E. (1997). Fathers and child development: An introductory overview and guide. In Lamb, M. E. (Ed.) The role of the father in child development (3rd ed., pp. 1–18). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Larose, S., & Boivin, M. (1997). Structural relations among attachment working models of parents, general and specific support expectations, and personal adjustment in late adolescence. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 14, 579–601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Last, C. G., Perrin, S., Hersen, M., & Kazdin, A. E. (1996). DSM-III-R anxiety disorders in children: Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 1070–1076.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, M., Feiring, C., McGuffog, C., & Jaskir, J. (1984). Predicting psychopathology in six-year-olds from early social relations. Child Development, 55, 123–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lonigan, C. J., & Phillips, B. M. (2001). Temperamental influences on the development of anxiety disorders. In Vasey, M. W. & Dadds, M. R. (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (pp. 60–91). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O'Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 561–592.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Easterbrooks, M. A., & Cibelli, C. D. (1997). Infant attachment strategies, infant mental lag, and maternal depressive symptoms: Predictors of internalizing and externalizing problems at age 7. Developmental Psychology, 33, 681–692.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (2008). Attachment disorganization: Genetic factors, parenting context, and developmental transformation from infancy to adulthood. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 667–697). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Spielman, E. (2004). Disorganized infant attachment strategies and helpless-fearful profiles of parenting: Integrating attachment research with clinical intervention. Infant Mental Health Journal, 25, 318–335.Google Scholar
Main, M., & Cassidy, J. (1986). Assessment of child–parent attachment at five to seven years of age. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of a new, insecure–disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. In Brazelton, T. B. & Yogman, M. V. (Eds.), Affective development in infancy (pp. 95–124). Norwood: Ablex.Google Scholar
Manassis, K. (2001). Child–parent relations: Attachment and anxiety disorders. In Silverman, W. K. & Treffers, P. D. A. (Eds.), Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Research, assessment, and intervention (pp. 255–272). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Manassis, K., Bradley, S., Goldberg, S., Hood, J., & Swinson, R. P. (1995). Behavioural inhibition, attachment, and anxiety in children of mothers with anxiety disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 40, 87–92.Google Scholar
Margolese, S. K., Markiewicz, D., & Doyle, A. B. (2005). Attachment to parents, best friend, and romantic partner: Predicting different pathways to depression in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 637–650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsh, P., McFarland, F. C., Allen, J. P., McElhaney, K. B., & Land, D. (2003). Attachment, autonomy, and multifinality in adolescent internalizing and risky behavioral symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 451–467.Google Scholar
McCartney, K., Owen, M. T., Booth, C. L., Clarke-Stewart, A., & Vandell, D. L. (2004). Testing a maternal attachment model of behavior problems in early childhood. Journal of Clinical Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 765–778.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miljkovitch, R., Pierrehumbert, B., & Halfon, O. (2007). Three-year-olds' attachment play narratives and their associations with internalizing problems. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 14, 249–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moss, E., Bureau, J. F., Cyr, C., Mongeau, C., St-Laurent, D. (2004). Correlates of attachment at age 3: Construct validity of the preschool attachment classification system. Developmental Psychology, 40, 323–334.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moss, E., Cyr, C., & Dubois-Comtois, K. (2004). Attachment at early school age and developmental risk: Examining family context and behavior problems of controlling-caregiving, controlling-punitive, and behaviorally disorganized children. Developmental Psychology, 40, 519–532.Google Scholar
Moss, E., Parent, S., Gosselin, C., Rousseau, D., & St-Laurent, D. (1996). Attachment and teacher-reported behavior problems during the preschool and early school-age period. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 511–525.Google Scholar
Moss, E., Rousseau, D., Parent, S., St-Laurent, D., & Saintonge, J. (1998). Correlates of attachment at school age: Maternal reported stress, mother–child interaction, and behavior problems. Child Development, 69, 1390–1405.Google Scholar
Moss, E., Smolla, N., Cyr, C., Dubois-Comtois, K., Mazzarello, T., & Berthiaume, C. (2006). Attachment and behavior problems in middle childhood as reported by adult and child informants. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 425–444.Google Scholar
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2006). Infant–mother attachment classification: Risk and protection in relation to changing maternal caregiving quality. Developmental Psychology, 1, 38–58.Google Scholar
Noom, M. J., Deković, M., & and Meeus, V. H. J. (1999). Autonomy, attachment and psychosocial adjustment during adolescence a double-edged sword? Journal of Adolescence, 22, 771–783.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ollendick, T. H., Shortt, A. L., & Sander, J. B. (2005). Internalizing disorders of childhood and adolescence. In Maddux, J. E. & Winstead, B. A. (Eds.), Psychopathology. Foundations for a contemporary understanding (pp. 353–376). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Papini, D. R., & Roggman, L. A. (1992). Adolescent perceived attachment to parents in relation to competence, depression, and anxiety: A longitudinal study. Journal of Early Adolescence, 12, 420–440.Google Scholar
Papini, D. R., Roggman, L. A., & Anderson, J. (1991). Early-adolescent perceptions of attachment to mother and father: A test of the emotional-distancing and buffering hypotheses. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 258–275.Google Scholar
Pierrehumbert, B., Miljkovitch, R., Plancherel, B., Halfon, O., & Ansermet, F. (2000). Attachment and temperament in early childhood: Implications for later behavior problems. Infant and Child Development, 9, 17–32.3.0.CO;2-#>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ranson, K. E., & Urichuk, L. J. (2008). The effect of parent–child attachment relationships on child biopsychosocial outcomes: A review. Early Child Development and Care, 178, 129–152.Google Scholar
Rapee, R. M. (1997). Potential role of childrearing practices in the development of anxiety and depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 17, 47–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roelofs, J., Meesters, C., Ter Huurne, M., Bamelis, L., & Muris, P. (2006). On the links between attachment style, parental rearing behaviors, and internalizing and externalizing problems in non-clinical children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 331–344.Google Scholar
Roisman, G. I., Fortuna, K., & Holland, A. (2006). An experimental manipulation of retrospectively defined earned and continuous attachment security. Child Development, 77, 59–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seligman, L. D., & Ollendick, T. H. (1998). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents: An integrative review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, 125–144.Google Scholar
Shamir-Essakow, G., Ungerer, J. A., & Rapee, R. M. (2005). Attachment, behavioral inhibition, and anxiety in preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 131–143.Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Keenan, K., Vondra, J. I., Delliquadri, E., & Giovannelli, J. (1997). Antecedents of preschool children's internalizing problems: A longitudinal study of low-income families. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1760–1767.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, D. S., & Vondra, J. I. (1995). Infant attachment security and maternal predictors of early behavior problems: A longitudinal study of low-income families. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 335–357.Google Scholar
Silk, J. S., Shaw, D. S., Skuban, E. M., Oland, A. A., & Kovacs, M. (2006). Emotion regulation strategies in offsprings of childhood-onset depressed mothers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 69–78.Google Scholar
Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2003). Adolescents' emotion regulation in daily life: Links to depressive symptoms and problem behavior. Child Development, 74, 1869–1880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slough, N. M., & Greenberg, M. T. (1990). Five-year-olds' representations of separation from parents: Responses from the perspective of self and other. New Directions for Child Development, 48, 67–84.Google Scholar
Solomon, J., & George, C. (2008). The measurement of attachment security and related constructs in infancy and early childhood. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 383–418). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Southam-Gerow, M. A., & Kendall, P. C. (2002). Emotion regulation and understanding; Implications for child psychopathology and therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 189–222.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A., & Rutter, M. (1984). The domain of developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 17–29.Google Scholar
Stams, G. J. J. M., Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2002). Maternal sensitivity, infant attachment, and temperament in early childhood predict adjustment in middle childhood: The case of adopted children and their biologically unrelated parents. Developmental Psychology, 38, 806–821.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sund, A. M., & Wichstrøm, L. (2002). Insecure attachment as a risk factor for future depressive symptoms in early adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1478–1485.Google Scholar
Suveg, C., & Zeman, J. (2004). Emotion regulation in children with anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 750–759.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (2001). Childhood anxiety disorders from the perspective of emotion regulation and attachment. In Vasey, M. W. & Dadds, M. R. (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (pp. 160–182). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A., & Meyer, S. (2007). Socialization of emotion regulation in the family. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.) Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 249–268). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Van IJzendoorn, M. H., Schuengel, C., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (1999). Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 225–249.Google Scholar
Vasey, M. V., & MacLeod, C. (2001). Information-processing factors in childhood anxiety: A review and developmental perspective. In Vasey, M. W. & Dadds, M. R. (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (pp. 253–278). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verschueren, K., & Marcoen, A. (2005). Perceived security of attachment to mother and father: Developmental differences and relations to self-worth and peer relationships at school. In Kerns, K. A. & Richardson, R. A. (Eds.), Attachment in middle childhood (pp. 212–230). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Vondra, J. I., Shaw, D. S., Swearingen, L., Cohen, M., & Owens, E. B. (2001). Attachment stability and emotional and behavioral regulation from infancy to preschool age. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 13–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warren, S. L., Huston, L., Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Child and adolescent anxiety disorders and early attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 637–644.Google Scholar
Waters, E. (1995). The Attachment Q-Set. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 60(Serial No. 244), 247–254.Google Scholar
Weems, C. F., & Silverman, W. K. (2006). An integrative model of control: Implications for understanding emotion regulation and dysregulation in childhood anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders, 91, 113–124.Google Scholar
West, M., Rose, M. S., Spreng, S., Sheldon-Keller, A., & Adam, K. (1998). Adolescent attachment questionnaire: A brief assessment of attachment in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 27, 661–673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, R. B. (2004). The role of parental and peer attachment in the psychological health and self-esteem of adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 479–493.Google Scholar
Williams, S. K., & Kelly, F. D. (2005). Relationships among involvement, attachment, and behavioral problems in adolescence: Examining father's influence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 168–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, J. J. (2007). Academic competence in preschool: Exploring the role of close relationships and anxiety. Early Education and Development, 18, 223–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yunger, J. L., Corby, B. C., & Perry, D. G. (2005). Dimensions of attachment in middle childhood. In Kerns, K. A. & Richardson, R. A. (Eds.), Attachment in middle childhood (pp. 89–114). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar