Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T22:10:45.174Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Interpersonal harm aversion as a necessary foundation for morality: A developmental neuroscience perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 April 2017

Jean Decety  and
Jason M. Cowell
Jean Decety*
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
Jason M. Cowell
Affiliation:
University of Wisconsin–Green Bay
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Jean Decety, Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, 5848 South University Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Growing evidence from developmental psychology and social neuroscience emphasizes the importance of third-party harm aversion for constructing morality. A sensitivity to interpersonal harm emerges very early in ontogeny, as reflected in both the capacity for implicit social evaluation and an aversion for antisocial agents. Yet it does not necessarily entail avoidance toward inflicting pain to others. Later, an understanding that harmful actions cause suffering emerges, followed by an integration of rules that can depend on social contexts and cultures. These developmental findings build on a burgeoning literature, which suggests that the fundamental nature of moral and social cognition, including their motivational and hedonic value, lies in general computational processes such as attention, approach–avoidance, social valuation, and decision making rather than in fully distinct, dedicated neural regions for morality. Bridging the gap between cognition and behaviors and the requisite affective, motivational, and cognitive mechanisms, a developmental neuroscience approach enriches our understanding of the emergence of morality.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 30 , Issue 1 , February 2018 , pp. 153 - 164
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Barrett, K. C., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Cole, P. M. (1993). Avoiders vs. amenders: Implications for the investigation of guilt and shame during toddlerhood? Cognition & Emotion, 7, 481–505. doi:10.1080/02699939308409201 Google Scholar
Barry, C. T., Frick, P. J., DeShazo, T. M., McCoy, M., Ellis, M., & Loney, B. R. (2000). The importance of callous-unemotional traits for extending the concept of psychopathy to children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 335–340. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.109.2.335 Google Scholar
Benenson, J. F., Pascoe, J., & Radmore, N. (2007). Children's altruistic behavior in the dictator game. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 168–175. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.10.003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, R. J. R. (1995). A cognitive developmental approach to morality: Investigating the psychopath. Cognition, 57, 1–29. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(95)00676-P Google Scholar
Blair, R. J. R. (2007). The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in morality and psychopathy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 387–389. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.07.003 Google Scholar
Blanchard, R. J., & Blanchard, D. C. (1989). Attack and defense in rodents as ethoexperimental models for the study of emotion. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 13(Suppl.), S3–S14. doi:10.1016/0278-5846(89)90105-X Google Scholar
Blasi, A., Mercure, E., Lloyd-Fox, S., Thomson, A., Brammer, M., Sauter, D., … Murphy, D. G. M. (2011). Early specialization for voice and emotion processing in the infant brain. Current Biology, 21, 1–5. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.06.009 Google Scholar
Brownell, C. A. (2016). Prosocial behavior in infancy: The role of socialization. Child Development Perspectives, 10, 222–227. doi:10.1111/cdep.12189 Google Scholar
Campos, J. J., Witherington, D., Anderson, D. I., Frankel, C. I., Uchiyama, I., & Barbu-Roth, M. (2008). Rediscovering development in infancy. Child Development, 79, 1625–1632. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01212.x Google Scholar
Cheng, Y., Chen, C., & Decety, J. (2014). An EEG/ERP investigation of the development of empathy during early childhood. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 160–169. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2014.08.012 Google Scholar
Cheng, Y., Hung, A., & Decety, J. (2012). Dissociation between affective sharing and emotion understanding in juvenile psychopaths. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 623–636. doi:10.1017/S095457941200020X Google Scholar
Cheng, Y., Lee, S. Y., Chen, H. Y., Wang, P., & Decety, J. (2012). Voice and emotion processing in the human neonatal brain. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24, 1411–1419. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00214 Google Scholar
Cheng, Y., Yang, C. Y., Lin, C. P., Lee, P. R., & Decety, J. (2008). The perception of pain in others suppresses somatosensory oscillations: A MEG study. NeuroImage, 40, 1833–1840. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.01.064 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowell, J., & Decety, J. (2015a). Precursors to morality in development as a complex interplay between neural, socio-environmental, and behavioral facets. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 12657–12662. doi:10.1073/pnas.1508832112 Google Scholar
Cowell, J. M., & Decety, J. (2015b). The neuroscience of implicit moral evaluation and its relation to generosity in early childhood. Current Biology, 25, 1–5. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.11.002 Google Scholar
Cowell, J. M., Lee, L., Malcolm-Smith, S., Yagmurlu, B., Zhou, X., & Decety, J. (2016). The development of generosity and moral cognition across cultures. Developmental Science. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/desc.12403 Google Scholar
Craig, M. C., Catani, M., Deeley, Q., Latham, R., Daly, E., Kanaan, R., … Murphy, M. (2009). Altered connections on the road to psychopathy. Molecular Psychiatry, 14, 946. doi:10.1038/mp.2009.40 Google Scholar
Csibra, G., & Gergely, G. (2011). Natural pedagogy as evolutionary adaptation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 366, 1149–1157. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0319 Google Scholar
Dahl, A. (2014). Definitions and developmental processes in research on infant morality. Human Development, 57, 241–249. doi:10.1159/000364919 Google Scholar
Dahl, A., & Freda, G. F. (2016). How young children come to view harming others as wrong: A developmental analysis of research from western communities. In Sommerville, J. A. & Decety, J. (Eds.), Social cognition–Development across the life span (pp. 151–184). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Davidov, M., Zahn-Waxler, C., Roth-Hanania, R., & Knafo, A. (2013). Concern for others in the first year of life: Theory, evidence, and avenues for research. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 126–131. doi:10.1111/cdep.12028 Google Scholar
Decety, J. (2011). Dissecting the neural mechanisms mediating empathy. Emotion Review, 3, 92–108. doi:10.1177/1754073910374662 Google Scholar
Decety, J., Ben-Ami Bartal, I., Uzefovsky, F., & Knafo-Noam, A. (2016). Empathy as a driver of prosocial behavior: Highly conserved neurobehavioral mechanisms across species. Proceedings of the Royal Society London B, 371, 20150077. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0077 Google Scholar
Decety, J., & Cacioppo, S. (2012). The speed of morality: A high-density electrical neuroimaging study. Journal of Neurophysiology, 108, 3068–3072. doi:10.1152/jn.00473.2012 Google Scholar
Decety, J., Chen, C., Harenski, C. L., & Kiehl, K. A. (2013). An fMRI study of affective perspective taking in individuals with psychopathy: Imagining another in pain does not evoke empathy. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 489. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00489 Google Scholar
Decety, J., & Cowell, J. M. (2014). The complex relation between morality and empathy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 337–339. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.04.008 Google Scholar
Decety, J., Lewis, K., & Cowell, J. M. (2015). Specific electrophysiological components disentangle affective sharing and empathic concern in psychopathy. Journal of Neurophysiology, 114, 493–504. doi:10.1152/jn.00253.2015 Google Scholar
Decety, J., Meidenbauer, K. L., & Cowell, J. M. (in press). The development of cognitive empathy and concern in preschool children: A behavioral neuroscience investigation. Developmental Science.Google Scholar
Decety, J., & Michalska, K. J. (2010). Neurodevelopmental changes in the circuits underlying empathy and sympathy from childhood to adulthood. Developmental Science, 13, 886–899. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00940.x Google Scholar
Decety, J., Michalska, K. J., & Akitsuki, Y. (2008). Who caused the pain? A functional MRI investigation of empathy and intentionality in children. Neuropsychologia, 46, 2607–2614. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.05.026 Google Scholar
Decety, J., Michalska, K. J., & Kinzler, K. D. (2012). The contribution of emotion and cognition to moral sensitivity: A neurodevelopmental study. Cerebral Cortex, 22, 209–220. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr111 Google Scholar
Decety, J., Norman, G. J., Berntson, G. G., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2012). A neurobehavioral evolutionary perspective on the mechanisms underlying empathy. Progress in Neurobiology, 98, 38–48. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.05.001 Google Scholar
Decety, J., & Porges, E. C. (2011). Imagining being the agent of actions that carry different moral consequences: An fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 49, 2994–3001. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.06.024 Google Scholar
Decety, J., Skelly, L. R., & Kiehl, K. A. (2013). Brain response to empathy-eliciting scenarios in incarcerated individuals with psychopathy. JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 638–645. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.27 Google Scholar
de Haan, M., Belsky, J., Reid, V., Volein, A., & Johnson, M. H. (2004). Maternal personality and infants’ neural and visual responsivity to facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1209–1218. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00320.x Google Scholar
Delgado, M. R., Beer, J. S., Fellows, L. K., Huettel, S. A., Platt, M., Quirk, G., & Schiller, D. (2016). Viewpoints: Dialogues on the functional role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 19, 1545–1552. doi:10.1038/nn.4438 Google Scholar
Denny, B. T., Kober, H., Wager, T. D., & Ochsner, K. N. (2012). A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of self- and other judgments reveals a spatial gradient for mentalizing in medial prefrontal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24, 1742–1752. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00233 Google Scholar
Dionne-Dostie, E., Paquette, N., Lassonde, M., & Gallagher, A. (2015). Multisensory integration in child neurodevelopment. Brain Sciences, 5, 32–57. doi:10.3390/brainsci5010032 Google Scholar
Dondi, M., Simion, F., & Caltran, G. (1999). Can newborns discriminate between their own cry and the cry of another newborn infant? Developmental Psychology, 35, 418–426. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.2.418 Google Scholar
Dunn, J. (2014). Moral development in early childhood and social interaction in the family. In Killen, M. & Smetana, J. (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (2nd ed., pp. 135–160). New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Eslinger, P. J., Flaherty-Craig, C. V., & Benton, A. L. (2004). Developmental outcomes after early prefrontal cortex damage. Brain and Cognition, 55, 84–103. doi:10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00281-1 Google Scholar
Fair, D. A., Cohen, A. L., Dosenbach, N. U., Church, J. A., Miezin, F. M., Barch, D. M., … Schlaggar, B. L. (2008). The maturing architecture of the brain's default network. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 4028–4032. doi:10.1073/pnas.0800376105 Google Scholar
Fawcett, C. A., & Liszkowski, U. (2012). Infants anticipate other's social preferences. Infant and Child Development, 21, 239–249. doi:10.1002/icd.739 Google Scholar
FeldmanHall, O., Dalgleish, T., Evans, D., & Mobbs, D. (2015). Empathic concern drives costly altruism. NeuroImage, 105, 347–356. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.10.043 Google Scholar
Fornito, A., Harrison, B. J., Zalesky, A., & Simons, J. S. (2012). Competitive and cooperative dynamics of large-scale brain functional networks supporting recollection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 12788–12793. doi:10.1073/pnas.1204185109 Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & White, S. F. (2008). The importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 359–375. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01862.x Google Scholar
Gray, K., Young, L., & Watz, A. (2012). Mind perception is the essence of morality. Psychological Inquiry, 23, 101–124. doi:10.1080/1047840X.2012.651387 Google Scholar
Hamlin, J. K. (2014). The case for social evaluation in preverbal infants and toddlers: Gazing towards one's goal drives infants’ preferences for helpers over hinderers in the hill paradigm. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1563. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01563 Google Scholar
Hamlin, J. K. (2015). The infantile origins of our moral brains. In Decety, J. & Wheatley, T. (Eds.), The moral brain—Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 105–122). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Hamlin, J. K., Wynn, K., & Bloom, P. (2010). Three-month-olds show a negativity bias in their social evaluations. Developmental Science, 13, 923–929. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00951.x Google Scholar
Hare, R. D. (2003). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised, manual (2nd ed.). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Harenski, C. L., Harenski, K. A., Shane, M. S., & Kiehl, K. A. (2010). Aberrant neural processing of moral violations in criminal psychopaths. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 863–874.Google Scholar
Hauser, M. (2006). Moral minds. New York: Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Hesse, E., Mikulan, E., Decety, J., Sigman, M., del Carmen Garcia, M., Silva, W., … Ibanez, A. (2016). Early detection of intentional harm in the human amygdala. Brain, 139, 54–61. doi:10.1093/brain/awv336 Google Scholar
Hohmeister, J., Kroll, A., Wollgarten-Hadamek, I., Zohsel, K., Demirakca, S., Flor, H., & Hermann, C. (2010). Cerebral processing of pain in school-aged children with neonatal nociceptive input: An exploratory fMRI study. Pain, 150, 257–267. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2010.04.004 Google Scholar
Holvoet, C., Scola, C., Arciszewski, T., & Picard, D. (2016). Infants’ preference for prosocial behaviors: A literature review. Infant Behavior and Development, 45, 125–139. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2016.10.008 Google Scholar
Huebner, B., Dwyer, S., & Hauser, M. (2008). The role of emotion in moral psychology. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.09.006 Google Scholar
Jackson, P. L., Rainville, P., & Decety, J. (2006). To what extent do we share the pain of others? Insight from the neural bases of pain empathy. Pain, 125, 5–9. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.09.013 Google Scholar
Jambon, M., & Smetana, J. G. (2015). Theories of moral development. In Wright, J. D. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (2nd ed., Vol. 15, pp. 788–795). Oxford: Elsevier.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanakogi, Y., Okumura, Y., Inoue, Y., Kitazaki, M., & Itakura, S. (2013). Rudimentary sympathy in preverbal infants: Preference for others in distress. PLOS ONE, 8, e65292. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065292 Google Scholar
Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2012). Brain: The neuroconstructivist approach. In E. K. Farran & A. Karmiloff-Smith (Eds.), Neurodevelopmental disorders across the lifespan: A neuroconstructivist approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kartner, J., Keller, H., & Chaudary, N. (2010). Cognitive and social influences on early prosocial behavior in two sociocultural contexts. Developmental Psychology, 46, 905–914. doi:10.1037/a0019718 Google Scholar
Killen, M., & Smetana, J. G. (2015). Origins and development of morality. In Lamb, M. E. (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science (Vol. 3, 7th ed., pp. 701–749). Boston: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Lamm, C., Decety, J., & Singer, T. (2011). Meta-analytic evidence for common and distinct neural networks associated with directly experienced pain and empathy for pain. NeuroImage, 54, 2492–2502. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.014 Google Scholar
Lee, Y., Yun, J. E., Kim, E. Y., & Song, H. (2015). The development of infants’ sensitivity to behavioral intentions when inferring others’ social preferences. PLOS ONE, 10, e0135588. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0135588 Google Scholar
Legrain, V., Iannetti, G. D., Plaghki, L., & Mouraux, A. (2011). The pain matrix reloaded: A salience detection system for the body. Progress in Neurobiology, 93, 111–124. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.10.005 Google Scholar
Leslie, A., Knobe, J., & Cohen, A. (2016). Acting intentionally and the side-effect: Theory of mind and moral judgment. Psychological Science, 17, 421–427. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01722.x Google Scholar
Levy, D., & Glimcher, P. W. (2016). Common value representation—A neuroeconomics perspective. In Brosch, T. & Sander, D. (Eds.), Handbook of value: Perspective from economics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology and sociology (pp. 85–118). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lockwood, P. L., Sebastian, C. L., McCrory, E. J., Hyde, Z. H., Gu, X., De Brito, S. A., & Viding, E. (2013). Association of callous traits with reduced neural response to others’ pain in children with conduct disorder. Current Biology, 23, 1–5. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.018 Google Scholar
Malle, B. F., & Guglielmo, S. (2012). Are intentionality judgments fundamentally moral? In Langdon, R. & Mackenzie, C. (Eds.), Emotions, imagination, and moral reasoning (pp. 275–293). Hove: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Marchant, A. (2014). Neonates do not feel pain: A critical review of the evidence. Bioscience Horizon, 7, 1–9. doi:10.1093/biohorizons/hzu006 Google Scholar
Marsh, A. A., Finger, E. C., Fowler, K. A., Adalio, C. J., Jurkowitz, I. N., Schechter, J. C., … Blair, R. J. R. (2013). Empathic responsiveness in amygdala and anterior cingulate cortex in youths with psychopathic traits. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 900–910. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12063 Google Scholar
Michalska, K. J., Zeffiro, T. A., & Decety, J. (2016). Brain response to viewing others being harmed in children with conduct disorder symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57, 510–519. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12474 Google Scholar
Motzkin, J. C., Newman, J. P., Kiehl, K. A., & Koenigs, M. (2011). Reduced prefrontal connectivity in psychopathy. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 17348–17357. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4215-11.2011 Google Scholar
Oishi, K., Faria, A. V., Hsu, J., Tippett, D., Mori, S., & Hillis, A. E. (2015). Critical role of the right uncinate fasciculus in emotional empathy. Annals of Neurology, 77, 68–74. doi:10.1002/ana.24300 Google Scholar
Olson, I. R., Von Der Heide, R. J., Alm, K. H., & Vyas, G. (2015). Development of the uncinate fasciculus: Implications for theory and developmental disorders. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 50–61. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.06.003 Google Scholar
Pasalich, D. S., Dadds, M. R., & Hawes, D. J. (2014). Cognitive and affective empathy in children with conduct problems: Additive and interactive effects of callous-unemotional traits and autism spectrum disorders symptoms. Psychiatry Research, 219, 625–630. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.06.025 Google Scholar
Passamonti, L., Fairchild, G., Fornito, A., Goodyer, I. M., Nimmo-Smith, I., Hagan, C. C., & Calder, A. J. (2012). Abnormal anatomical connectivity between the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex in conduct disorder. PLOS ONE, 7, e48789. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048789 Google Scholar
Pelphrey, K. E., & Carter, E. J. (2008). Charting the typical and atypical development of the social brain. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 1081–1102. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000515 Google Scholar
Restoin, A., Montagner, H., Rodriguez, D., Girardot, J. J., Laurent, D., Kontar, F., … Talpain, B. (1985). Chronologie des comportements de communication et profils de comportement chez le jeune enfant. In Tremblay, R. E., Provost, M. A., & Strayer, F. F. (Eds.), Ethologie et Developpement de L'enfant (pp. 93–130). Paris: Editions Stock/Laurence Pernoud.Google Scholar
Rochat, P., & Hespos, S. J. (1997). Differential rooting response by neonates: Evidence for an early sense of self. Early Development and Parenting, 6, 105–112. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0917(199709/12)6:3/4<105::AID-EDP150>3.0.CO;2-U Google Scholar
Roth-Hanania, R., Davidov, M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2011). Empathy development from 8 to 16 months: Early signs of concern for others. Infant Behavior and Development, 34, 447–458. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2011.04.007 Google Scholar
Salvadori, E., Blazsekova, T., Volein, A., Karap, Z., Tatone, D., Mascaro, O., & Csibra, G. (2015). Probing the strength of infants’ preference for helpers over hinderers: Two replication attempts of Hamlin and Wynn (2011). PLOS ONE, 11, e0140570. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0140570 Google Scholar
Scarf, D., Imuta, K., Colombo, M., & Hayne, H. (2012). Social evaluation or simple association? Simple associations may explain moral reasoning in infants. PLOS ONE, 7, e42698. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042698 Google Scholar
Schmidt, M. F. H., & Sommerville, J. A. (2011). Fairness expectations and altruistic sharing in 15-month-old human infants. PLOS ONE, 6, e23223. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0023223 Google Scholar
Sloane, S., Baillargeon, R., & Premack, D. (2012). Do infants have a sense of fairness? Psychological Science, 232, 196–204. doi:10.1177/0956797611422072 Google Scholar
Smetana, J. (2006). Social domain theory: Consistencies and variations in children's moral and social judgments. In Killen, M. & Smetana, J. (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (pp. 119–154). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Swain, J. E., Konrath, S., Brown, S. L., Finegood, E. D., Akce, L. B., Dayton, C. J., & Ho, S. S. (2012). Parenting and beyond: Common neurocircuits underlying parental and altruistic caregiving. Parental Science Practice, 12, 1–9. doi:10.1080/15295192.2012.680409 Google Scholar
Taber-Thomas, B. C., Asp, E. W., Koenigs, M., Sutterer, M., Anderson, S. W., & Tranel, D. (2014). Arrested development: Early prefrontal lesions impair the maturation of moral judgment. Brain, 137, 1254–1261. doi:10.1093/brain/awt377 Google Scholar
Tomasello, M., & Vaish, A. (2013). Origins of human cooperation and morality. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 231–255. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143812 Google Scholar
Tremblay, R. E. (2000). The development of aggressive behavior during childhood: What have we learned in the past century? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 129–141. doi:10.1080/016502500383232 Google Scholar
Tremblay, R. E. (2006). Prevention of youth violence: Why not start at the beginning? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 481–487. doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9038-7 Google Scholar
Tucker, D. M., Luu, P., & Derryberry, D. (2005). Love hurts: The evolution of empathic concern through the encephalization of nociceptive capacity. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 699–713. doi:10.1017/S0954579405050339 Google Scholar
Turiel, E. (2002). The culture of morality: Social development, context, and conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wolf, R. C., Pujara, M. S., Motzkin, J. C., Newman, J. P., Kiehl, K. A., Decety, J., … Koenigs, M. (2015). Interpersonal traits of psychopathy linked to reduced integrity of the uncinate fasciculus. Human Brain Mapping, 36, 4202–4209. doi:10.1002/hbm.22911 Google Scholar
Xia, C., Stolle, D., Gidengil, E., & Fellows, L. K. (2015). Lateral orbitofrontal cortex links impressions to political choices. Journal of Neuroscience, 35, 8507–8524. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0526-15.2015 Google Scholar
Yoder, K. J., Lahey, B. B., & Decety, J. (2016). Callous traits in children with and without conduct problems predict reduced connectivity when viewing harm to others. Scientific Reports, 6, 20216. doi:10.1038/srep20216 Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., Helwig, C. C., & Lau, A. (1996). Intention, act, and outcome in behavioral prediction and moral judgment. Child Development, 67, 2478–2492.Google Scholar