Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T17:12:55.476Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Impulsivity as a mechanism linking child abuse and neglect with substance use in adolescence and adulthood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 June 2017

Assaf Oshri ,
Steve M. Kogan ,
Josephine A. Kwon ,
K. A. S. Wickrama ,
Lauren Vanderbroek ,
Abraham A. Palmer  and
James MacKillop
Assaf Oshri*
Affiliation:
University ofGeorgia
Steve M. Kogan
Affiliation:
University ofGeorgia
Josephine A. Kwon
Affiliation:
University ofGeorgia
K. A. S. Wickrama
Affiliation:
University ofGeorgia
Lauren Vanderbroek
Affiliation:
University ofGeorgia
Abraham A. Palmer
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
James MacKillop
Affiliation:
University ofGeorgia McMaster University St. Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Assaf Oshri, Department of Human Development and Family Science, University of Georgia, 208 Family Science Center (House A), 403 Sanford Drive, Athens, GA 30602; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Emerging developmental perspectives suggest that adverse rearing environments promote neurocognitive adaptations that heighten impulsivity and increase vulnerability to risky behavior. Although studies document links between harsh rearing environments and impulsive behavior on substance use, the developmental hypothesis that impulsivity acts as mechanism linking adverse rearing environments to downstream substance use remains to be investigated. The present study investigated the role of impulsivity in linking child abuse and neglect with adult substance use using data from (a) a longitudinal sample of youth (Study 1, N = 9,421) and (b) a cross-sectional sample of adults (Study 2, N = 1,011). In Study 1, the links between child abuse and neglect and young adult smoking and marijuana use were mediated by increases in adolescent impulsivity. In Study 2, indirect links between child abuse and neglect and substance use were evidenced via delayed reward discounting and impulsivity traits. Among impulsivity subcomponents, robust indirect effects connecting childhood experiences to cigarette use emerged for negative urgency. Negative urgency, positive urgency, and sensation seeking mediated the effect of child abuse and neglect on cannabis and alcohol use. Results suggest that child abuse and neglect increases risk for substance use in part, due to effects on impulsivity. Individuals with adverse childhood experiences may benefit from substance use preventive intervention programs that target impulsive behaviors.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 30 , Issue 2 , May 2018 , pp. 417 - 435
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This work was partially supported by NIH Grant P30 DA027827 and by NIH Grand R01-AA024930 and Project Grant 365297 (both to J.M.). Dr. Oshri is a mentored scientist at the Center for Translational and Prevention Science (P30 DA026285). Dr. MacKillop is the holder of the Peter Boris Chair in Addictions Research, which partially supported his role. The authors gratefully acknowledge John Acker's assistance with data collection for the crowd-sourcing study.

References

Adams, Z. W., Kaiser, A. J., Lynam, D. R., Charnigo, R. J., & Milich, R. (2012). Drinking motives as mediators of the impulsivity-substance use relation: Pathways for negative urgency, lack of premeditation, and sensation seeking. Addictive Behaviors, 37, 848–855.Google Scholar
Alessandri, S. M. (1991). Play and social behavior in maltreated preschoolers. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 191–206.Google Scholar
Amlung, M., & MacKillop, J. (2014). Understanding the effects of stress and alcohol cues on motivation for alcohol via behavioral economics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 38, 1780–1789.Google Scholar
Amlung, M., Vedelago, L., Acker, J., Balodis, I., & MacKillop, J. (2016). Steep delay discounting and addictive behavior: A meta-analysis of continuous associations. Addiction. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Anda, R. F., Croft, J. B., Felitti, V. J., Nordenberg, D., Giles, W. H., Williamson, D. F., & Giovino, G. A. (1999). Adverse childhood experiences and smoking during adolescence and adulthood. Journal of the American Medical Association, 282, 1652–1658.Google Scholar
Arnow, B. A., Blasey, C. M., Hunkeler, E. M., Lee, J., & Hayward, C. (2011). Does gender moderate the relationship between childhood maltreatment and adult depression? Child Maltreatment, 16, 175–183.Google Scholar
Audrain-McGovern, J., Rodriguez, D., Epstein, L. H., Cuevas, J., Rodgers, K., & Wileyto, E. P. (2009). Does delay discounting play an etiological role in smoking or is it a consequence of smoking? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 103, 99–106.Google Scholar
Berinsky, A. J., Huber, G. A., & Lenz, G. S. (2012). Evaluating online labor markets for experimental research: Amazon.com's Mechanical Turk. Political Analysis, 20, 351–368.Google Scholar
Bickel, W. K., & Marsch, L. A. (2001). Toward a behavioral economic understanding of drug dependence: Delay discounting processes. Addiction, 96, 73–86.Google Scholar
Bickel, W. K., Yi, R., Landes, R. D., Hill, P. F., & Baxter, C. (2011). Remember the future: Working memory training decreases delay discounting among stimulant addicts. Biological Psychiatry, 69, 260–265.Google Scholar
Black, A. C., McMahon, T. J., Potenza, M. N., Fiellin, L. E., & Rosen, M. I. (2015). Gender moderates the relationship between impulsivity and sexual risk-taking in a cocaine-using psychiatric outpatient population. Personality and Individual Differences, 75, 190–194.Google Scholar
Bobova, L., Finn, P. R., Rickert, M. E., & Lucas, J. (2009). Disinhibitory psychopathology and delay discounting in alcohol dependence: Personality and cognitive correlates. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17, 51.Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., & Flor, D. L. (1997). Maternal psychological functioning, family processes, and child adjustment in rural, single-parent, African American families. Developmental Psychology, 33, 1000.Google Scholar
Brownstein, N., Kalsbeek, W. D., Tabor, J., Entzel, P., Daza, E., & Harris, K. M. (2011). Non-response in Wave IV of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Carolina Population Center.Google Scholar
Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon's Mechanical Turk a new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 3–5.Google Scholar
Carpenter, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (1999). Drinking to cope with negative affect and DSM-IV alcohol use disorders: A test of three alternative explanations. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 60, 694–704.Google Scholar
Chapple, C. L., & Johnson, K. A. (2007). Gender differences in impulsivity. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5, 221–234.Google Scholar
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233–255.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 6.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Oshri, A. (2011). Interactive effects of corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1, serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region, and child maltreatment on diurnal cortisol regulation and internalizing symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 1125–1138.Google Scholar
Coskunpinar, A., Dir, A. L., & Cyders, M. A. (2013). Multidimensionality in impulsivity and alcohol use: A meta-analysis using the UPPS model of impulsivity. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 37, 1441–1450.Google Scholar
Crews, F. T., & Boettiger, C. A. (2009). Impulsivity, frontal lobes and risk for addiction. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 93, 237–247.Google Scholar
Cross, C. P., Copping, L. T., & Campbell, A. (2011). Sex differences in impulsivity: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 97.Google Scholar
Cyders, M. A. (2013). Impulsivity and the sexes: Measurement and structural invariance of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale. Assessment, 20, 86–97.Google Scholar
Cyders, M. A., & Coskunpinar, A. (2011). Measurement of constructs using self-report and behavioral lab tasks: Is there overlap in nomothetic span and construct representation for impulsivity? Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 965–982.Google Scholar
Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2007). Mood-based rash action and its components: Positive and negative urgency. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 839–850.Google Scholar
Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-based dispositions to rash action: Positive and negative urgency. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 807.Google Scholar
Daniel, T. O., Stanton, C. M., & Epstein, L. H. (2013). The future is now reducing impulsivity and energy intake using episodic future thinking. Psychological Science, 24, 2339–2342.Google Scholar
Deater-Deckard, K. (2014). Family matters: Intergenerational and interpersonal processes of executive function and attentive behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 230–236.Google Scholar
De Bellis, M. D., Baum, A. S., Birmaher, B., Keshavan, M. S., Eccard, C. H., Boring, A. M., … Ryan, N. D. (1999). Developmental traumatology: Part I. Biological stress systems. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 1259–1270.Google Scholar
Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011). The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1562–1592.Google Scholar
De Wit, H. (2009). Impulsivity as a determinant and consequence of drug use: A review of underlying processes. Addiction Biology, 14, 22–31.Google Scholar
Dick, D. M., Smith, G., Olausson, P., Mitchell, S. H., Leeman, R. F., O'Malley, S. S., & Sher, K. (2010). Review: Understanding the construct of impulsivity and its relationship to alcohol use disorders. Addiction Biology, 15, 217–226.Google Scholar
Dube, S. R., Felitti, V. J., Dong, M., Chapman, D. P., Giles, W. H., & Anda, R. F. (2003). Childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction and the risk of illicit drug use: The adverse childhood experiences study. Pediatrics, 111, 564–572.Google Scholar
Enoch, M.-A. (2011). The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology, 214, 17–31.Google Scholar
Erickson, M. F., Egeland, B., & Pianta, R. (1989). The effects of maltreatment on the development of young children. In Cicchetti, D. & Carlson, V. (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 647–664). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Evans, G. W., Gonnella, C., Marcynyszyn, L. A., Gentile, L., & Salpekar, N. (2005). The role of chaos in poverty and children's socioemotional adjustment. Psychological Science, 16, 560–565.Google Scholar
Fang, X., & Corso, P. S. (2007). Child maltreatment, youth violence, and intimate partner violence: Developmental relationships. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33, 281–290.Google Scholar
Fernie, G., Peeters, M., Gullo, M. J., Christiansen, P., Cole, J. C., Sumnall, H., & Field, M. (2013). Multiple behavioural impulsivity tasks predict prospective alcohol involvement in adolescents. Addiction, 108, 1916–1923.Google Scholar
Gagnon, J., Daelman, S., McDuff, P., & Kocka, A. (2013). UPPS dimensions of impulsivity. Journal of Individual Differences, 34 48–55.Google Scholar
Garavan, H. (2011). Impulsivity and addiction. In Adinoff, B. & Stein, E. I. (Eds.), Neuroimaging in addiction (pp. 157–176). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Goodman, J. K., Cryder, C. E., & Cheema, A. (2013). Data collection in a flat world: The strengths and weaknesses of Mechanical Turk samples. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 26, 213–224.Google Scholar
Hardt, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: Review of the evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 260–273.Google Scholar
Heim, C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2002). Neurobiology of early life stress: Clinical studies. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 17, 142–149.Google Scholar
Hewitt, J., Evans, J., & Dritschel, B. (2006). Theory driven rehabilitation of executive functioning: Improving planning skills in people with traumatic brain injury through the use of an autobiographical episodic memory cueing procedure. Neuropsychologia, 44, 1468–1474.Google Scholar
Hosking, J., & Winstanley, C. A. (2011). Impulsivity as a mediating mechanism between early-life adversity and addiction: Theoretical comment on Lovic et al. (2011). Behavioral Neuroscience, 125, 681–686.Google Scholar
Hussey, J. M., Chang, J. J., & Kotch, J. B. (2006). Child maltreatment in the United States: Prevalence, risk factors, and adolescent health consequences. Pediatrics, 118, 933–942.Google Scholar
Jaccard, J., & Guilamo-Ramos, V. (2002). Analysis of variance frameworks in clinical child and adolescent psychology: Advanced issues and recommendations. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 278–294.Google Scholar
Jankowski, K. F., Bruce, J., Beauchamp, K. G., Roos, L. E., Moore, W. E., & Fisher, P. A. (2016). Preliminary evidence of the impact of early childhood maltreatment and a preventive intervention on neural patterns of response inhibition in early adolescence. Developmental Science. Advance online publication.Google Scholar
Jones, C. G., Fearnley, H., Panagiotopoulos, B., & Kemp, R. I. (2015). Delay discounting, self-control, and substance use among adult drug court participants. Behavioural Pharmacology, 26, 447–459.Google Scholar
Kidd, C., Palmeri, H., & Aslin, R. N. (2013). Rational snacking: Young children's decision-making on the marshmallow task is moderated by beliefs about environmental reliability. Cognition, 126, 109–114.Google Scholar
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 706–716.Google Scholar
Kimbrough, E., Magyari, T., Langenberg, P., Chesney, M., & Berman, B. (2010). Mindfulness intervention for child abuse survivors. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 66, 17–33.Google Scholar
Kirby, K. N., Petry, N. M., & Bickel, W. K. (1999). Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than non-drug-using controls. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 78.Google Scholar
Klanecky, A. K., & McChargue, D. E. (2013). Vulnerability to alcohol use disorders following early sexual abuse: The role of effortful control. Addiction Research and Theory, 21, 160–180.Google Scholar
Koob, G., & Kreek, M. J. (2007). Stress, dysregulation of drug reward pathways, and the transition to drug dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 1149–1159.Google Scholar
Koss, M. P., Yuan, N. P., Dightman, D., Prince, R. J., Polacca, M., Sanderson, B., & Goldman, D. (2003). Adverse childhood exposures and alcohol dependence among seven Native American tribes. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25, 238–244.Google Scholar
Kreek, M. J., Nielsen, D. A., Butelman, E. R., & LaForge, K. S. (2005). Genetic influences on impulsivity, risk taking, stress responsivity and vulnerability to drug abuse and addiction. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1450–1457.Google Scholar
Lejuez, C. W., Read, J. P., Kahler, C. W., Richards, J. B., Ramsey, S. E., Stuart, G. L., … Brown, R. A. (2002). Evaluation of a behavioral measure of risk taking: The Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 75.Google Scholar
Lovallo, W. R. (2006). Cortisol secretion patterns in addiction and addiction risk. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 59, 195–202.Google Scholar
Lovallo, W. R. (2013). Early life adversity reduces stress reactivity and enhances impulsive behavior: Implications for health behaviors. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 90, 8–16.Google Scholar
Lovallo, W. R., Farag, N. H., Sorocco, K. H., Acheson, A., Cohoon, A. J., & Vincent, A. S. (2013). Early life adversity contributes to impaired cognition and impulsive behavior: Studies from the Oklahoma Family Health Patterns Project. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 37, 616–623.Google Scholar
Lovallo, W. R., Farag, N. H., Sorocco, K. H., Cohoon, A. J., & Vincent, A. S. (2012). Lifetime adversity leads to blunted stress axis reactivity: Studies from the Oklahoma Family Health Patterns Project. Biological Psychiatry, 71, 344–349.Google Scholar
Lovic, V., Keen, D., Fletcher, P. J., & Fleming, A. S. (2011). Early-life maternal separation and social isolation produce an increase in impulsive action but not impulsive choice. Behavioral Neuroscience, 125, 481.Google Scholar
Lynam, D. R., Miller, J. D., Miller, D. J., Bornovalova, M. A., & Lejuez, C. (2011). Testing the relations between impulsivity-related traits, suicidality, and nonsuicidal self-injury: A test of the incremental validity of the UPPS model. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 2, 151.Google Scholar
MacKillop, J., Amlung, M. T., Few, L. R., Ray, L. A., Sweet, L. H., & Munafò, M. R. (2011). Delayed reward discounting and addictive behavior: A meta-analysis. Psychopharmacology, 216, 305–321.Google Scholar
MacKillop, J., Mattson, R. E., Anderson MacKillop, E. J., Castelda, B. A., & Donovick, P. J. (2007). Multidimensional assessment of impulsivity in undergraduate hazardous drinkers and controls. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68, 785–788.Google Scholar
Madden, G. J., Bickel, W. K., & Jacobs, E. A. (1999). Discounting of delayed rewards in opioid-dependent outpatients: Exponential or hyperbolic discounting functions? Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7, 284.Google Scholar
Magid, V., & Colder, C. R. (2007). The UPPS Impulsive Behavior Scale: Factor structure and associations with college drinking. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1927–1937.Google Scholar
Mason, W., & Suri, S. (2012). Conducting behavioral research on Amazon's Mechanical Turk. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 1–23.Google Scholar
Maughan, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). Impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children's emotion regulation abilities and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1525–1542.Google Scholar
McEwen, B. S. (2008). Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: Understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. European Journal of Pharmacology, 583, 174–185.Google Scholar
McEwen, B. S., & Morrison, J. H. (2013). The brain on stress: Vulnerability and plasticity of the prefrontal cortex over the life course. Neuron, 79, 16–29.Google Scholar
Mendelson, T., Greenberg, M. T., Dariotis, J. K., Gould, L. F., Rhoades, B. L., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Feasibility and preliminary outcomes of a school-based mindfulness intervention for urban youth. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 985–994.Google Scholar
Mitchell, J. M., Fields, H. L., D'Esposito, M., & Boettiger, C. A. (2005). Impulsive responding in alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 29, 2158–2169.Google Scholar
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16, 361–388.Google Scholar
Muhammad, A., Carroll, C., & Kolb, B. (2012). Stress during development alters dendritic morphology in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience, 216, 103–109.Google Scholar
Muthén, B., du Toit, S., & Spisic, D. (1997). Robust inference using weighted least squares and quadratic estimating equations in latent variable modeling with categorical and continuous outcomes. Retrieved from https://www.statmodel.com/download/Article_075.pdfGoogle Scholar
Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. (2015). Mplus 7.31 [Computer software]. Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
National Center for Health Statistics. (2007). Health, United States, 2007: With chartbook on trends in the health of Americans. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics.Google Scholar
Oshri, A., Rogosch, F. A., Burnette, M. L., & Cicchetti, D. (2011). Developmental pathways to adolescent cannabis abuse and dependence: Child maltreatment, emerging personality, and internalizing versus externalizing psychopathology. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25, 634.Google Scholar
Oshri, A., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2013). Child maltreatment and mediating influences of childhood personality types on the development of adolescent psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 42, 287–301.Google Scholar
Ouyang, L., Fang, X., Mercy, J., Perou, R., & Grosse, S. D. (2008). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and child maltreatment: A population-based study. Journal of Pediatrics, 153, 851–856.Google Scholar
Patton, J. H., & Stanford, M. S. (1995). Factor structure of the Barratt impulsiveness scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51, 768–774.Google Scholar
Pechtel, P., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2011). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology, 214, 55–70.Google Scholar
Peters, J., & Büchel, C. (2010). Episodic future thinking reduces reward delay discounting through an enhancement of prefrontal-mediotemporal interactions. Neuron, 66, 138–148.Google Scholar
Petry, N. M. (2001). Pathological gamblers, with and without substance abuse disorders, discount delayed rewards at high rates. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 482.Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.Google Scholar
Ramiro, L. S., Madrid, B. J., & Brown, D. W. (2010). Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and health-risk behaviors among adults in a developing country setting. Child Abuse and Neglect, 34, 842–855.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, M. L., Ayduk, O., Aber, J. L., Mischel, W., Sethi, A., & Shoda, Y. (2005). A contextual approach to the development of self-regulatory competencies: The role of maternal unresponsivity and toddlers’ negative affect in stressful situations. Social Development, 14, 136–157.Google Scholar
Saunders, J. B., Aasland, O. G., Babor, T. F., De la Fuente, J. R., & Grant, M. (1993). Development of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption: II. Addiction, 88, 791–804.Google Scholar
Shamosh, N. A., DeYoung, C. G., Green, A. E., Reis, D. L., Johnson, M. R., Conway, A. R., … Gray, J. R. (2008). Individual differences in delay discounting: Relation to intelligence, working memory, and anterior prefrontal cortex. Psychological Science, 19, 904–911.Google Scholar
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 381–395.Google Scholar
Shin, S. H., Edwards, E. M., & Heeren, T. (2009). Child abuse and neglect: Relations to adolescent binge drinking in the national longitudinal study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) Study. Addictive Behaviors, 34, 277–280.Google Scholar
Shin, S. H., Miller, D. P., & Teicher, M. H. (2013). Exposure to childhood neglect and physical abuse and developmental trajectories of heavy episodic drinking from early adolescence into young adulthood. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 127, 31–38.Google Scholar
Simons, J. S., Dvorak, R. D., Batien, B. D., & Wray, T. B. (2010). Event-level associations between affect, alcohol intoxication, and acute dependence symptoms: Effects of urgency, self-control, and drinking experience. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 1045–1053.Google Scholar
Sinha, R., & Jastreboff, A. M. (2013). Stress as a common risk factor for obesity and addiction. Biological Psychiatry, 73, 827–835.Google Scholar
Smith, G. T., Fischer, S., Cyders, M. A., Annus, A. M., Spillane, N. S., & McCarthy, D. M. (2007). On the validity and utility of discriminating among impulsivity-like traits. Assessment, 14, 155–170.Google Scholar
Spencer, S. J., Buller, K. M., & Day, T. A. (2005). Medial prefrontal cortex control of the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus response to psychological stress: Possible role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 481, 363–376.Google Scholar
Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 69–74.Google Scholar
Steinberg, L. (2007). Risk taking in adolescence new perspectives from brain and behavioral science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 55–59.Google Scholar
Stoltenberg, S. F., Batien, B. D., & Birgenheir, D. G. (2008). Does gender moderate associations among impulsivity and health-risk behaviors? Addictive Behaviors, 33, 252–265.Google Scholar
Tajima, E. A., Herrenkohl, T. I., Huang, B., & Whitney, S. D. (2004). Measuring child maltreatment: A comparison of prospective parent reports and retrospective adolescent reports. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 74, 424.Google Scholar
Thibodeau, E. L., Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2015). Child maltreatment, impulsivity, and antisocial behavior in African American children: Moderation effects from a cumulative dopaminergic gene index. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 1621–1636.Google Scholar
Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3, 4–70.Google Scholar
van Marle, H. J., Hermans, E. J., Qin, S., & Fernández, G. (2009). From specificity to sensitivity: How acute stress affects amygdala processing of biologically salient stimuli. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 649–655.Google Scholar
Verdejo-García, A., Bechara, A., Recknor, E. C., & Pérez-García, M. (2007). Negative emotion-driven impulsivity predicts substance dependence problems. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 91, 213–219.Google Scholar
Verdejo-García, A., Lawrence, A. J., & Clark, L. (2008). Impulsivity as a vulnerability marker for substance-use disorders: Review of findings from high-risk research, problem gamblers and genetic association studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 777–810.Google Scholar
Weller, J. A., Leve, L. D., Kim, H. K., Bhimji, J., & Fisher, P. A. (2015). Plasticity of risky decision making among maltreated adolescents: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 535–551.Google Scholar
Whiteside, S. P., & Lynam, D. R. (2001). The five factor model and impulsivity: Using a structural model of personality to understand impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 669–689.Google Scholar
Whiteside, S. P., Lynam, D. R., Miller, J. D., & Reynolds, S. K. (2005). Validation of the UPPS impulsive behaviour scale: A four-factor model of impulsivity. European Journal of Personality, 19, 559–574.Google Scholar
Wickrama, K. A., Conger, R. D., Wallace, L. E., & Elder, G. H. Jr. (1999). The intergenerational transmission of health-risk behaviors: Adolescent lifestyles and gender moderating effects. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 258–272.Google Scholar
Wiers, R., Ames, S. L., Hofmann, W., Krank, M., & Stacy, A. (2010). Impulsivity, impulsive and reflective processes and the development of alcohol use and misuse in adolescents and young adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 1, 144.Google Scholar
Winstanley, C. A., Olausson, P., Taylor, J. R., & Jentsch, J. D. (2010). Insight into the relationship between impulsivity and substance abuse from studies using animal models. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34, 1306–1318.Google Scholar
Zapolski, T. C., Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2009). Positive urgency predicts illegal drug use and risky sexual behavior. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23, 348.Google Scholar