Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T09:40:56.115Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Female and male antisocial trajectories: From childhood origins to adult outcomes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 April 2008

Candice L. Odgers ,
Terrie E. Moffitt ,
Jonathan M. Broadbent ,
Nigel Dickson ,
Robert J. Hancox ,
Honalee Harrington ,
Richie Poulton ,
Malcolm R. Sears ,
W. Murray Thomson  and
Avshalom Caspi
Candice L. Odgers*
Affiliation:
University of California–Irvine
Terrie E. Moffitt
Affiliation:
King's College, London Duke University
Jonathan M. Broadbent
Affiliation:
University of Otago, New Zealand
Nigel Dickson
Affiliation:
University of Otago, New Zealand
Robert J. Hancox
Affiliation:
University of Otago, New Zealand
Honalee Harrington
Affiliation:
University of Wisconsin
Richie Poulton
Affiliation:
University of Otago, New Zealand
Malcolm R. Sears
Affiliation:
McMaster University
W. Murray Thomson
Affiliation:
University of Otago, New Zealand
Avshalom Caspi
Affiliation:
King's College, London Duke University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Candice L. Odgers, Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California–Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-7085; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article reports on the childhood origins and adult outcomes of female versus male antisocial behavior trajectories in the Dunedin longitudinal study. Four antisocial behavior trajectory groups were identified among females and males using general growth mixture modeling and included life-course persistent (LCP), adolescent-onset, childhood-limited, and low trajectory groups. During childhood, both LCP females and males were characterized by social, familial and neurodevelopmental risk factors, whereas those on the adolescent-onset pathway were not. At age 32, women and men on the LCP pathway were engaging in serious violence and experiencing significant mental health, physical health, and economic problems. Females and males on the adolescent-onset pathway were also experiencing difficulties at age 32, although to a lesser extent. Although more males than females followed the LCP trajectory, findings support similarities across gender with respect to developmental trajectories of antisocial behavior and their associated childhood origins and adult consequences. Implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed.

Type
Research Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 20 , Issue 2 , Spring 2008 , pp. 673 - 716
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This work was supported by grants from the US National Institute of Mental Health (Grants MH45070 and MH49414), UK Medical Research Council (G0100527), Economic and Social Research Council, William T. Grant Foundation, Health Research Council of New Zealand, Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (756-2004-0041), and US National Institute for Dental and Craniofacial Research (R01 DE-015260-01A1). Candice L. Odgers is a Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research Trainee. Terrie E. Moffitt and Avshalom Caspi are Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit Award holders. We thank the Dunedin study members, Unit research staff, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Daniel Nagin, and study founder Phil Silva.

References

Akaike, H. (1974). New look at statistical-model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 19, 716–723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistic manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Arbucle, J. L. (1996). Full information estimation in presence of incomplete data. In Marcoulides, G. A. & Schumacker, R. E. (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling, issues and techniques (pp. 243–77). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Asendorpf, J. B., Borkenau, P., Ostendorf, F., & Van Aken, M. A. G. (2001). Carving personality description at its joints: Confirmation of three replicable personality prototypes for both children and adults. European Journal of Personality, 15, 169–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2006). Robust chi square difference testing with mean and adjusted test statistics. In Mplus web notes (p. 9). Los Angeles: University of California Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Bardone, A. M., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Dickson, N. (1996). Adult mental health and social outcomes of adolescent girls with depression and conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 811–829.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belli, R. F., Shay, W. L., & Stafford, F. P. (2001). Event history calendars and question list surveys: A direct comparison of interviewing methods. Public Opinion Quarterly, 65, 45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bongers, I. L., Koot, H. M., van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2004). Developmental trajectories of externalizing behaviors in childhood and adolescence. Child Development, 75, 1523–1537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, J. M., Thomson, W. M., & Poulton, R. (2006). Progression of dental caries and tooth loss between the third and fourth decades of life: A birth cohort study. Caries Research, 40, 459–465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broidy, L. M., Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E., Bates, J. E., Brame, B., Dodge, K. A., et al. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: A six-site, cross-national study. Developmental Psychology, 39, 222–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byrne, B. M., & Watkins, D. (2003). The issue of measurement invariance revisited. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34, 155–175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A. (2000). The child is father of the man: Personality continuities from childhood to adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 158–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Harrington, H., Milne, B., Moffit, T. E., & Poulton, R. (2006). Socially isolated children 20 years later: Risk for cardiovascular disease. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 160, 805–811.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Thornton, A., Freedman, D., Amell, J. W., Harrington, H., et al. (1996). The life history calendar: A research and clinical assessment method for collecting retrospective event-history data. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 6, 101–114.3.3.CO;2-E>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A., & Silva, P. A. (1995). Temperamental qualities at age three predict personality traits in young adulthood: Longitudinal evidence from a birth cohort. Child Development, 66, 486–498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costello, A., Edelbrock, C., Kalas, R., Kessler, M., & Klaric, S. A. (1982). Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC). Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.Google Scholar
Coté, S., Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D. S., Zoccolillo, M., & Vitaro, F. (2002). Childhood behavioral profiles leading to adolescent conduct disorder: Risk trajectories for boys and girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1086–1094.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coté, S., Zoccolillo, M., Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D., & Vitaro, F. (2001). Predicting girls' conduct disorder in adolescence from childhood trajectories of disruptive behaviors. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry y, 40, 678–684.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710–722.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D'Unger, A. V., Land, K. C., McCall, P. L., & Nagin, D. S. (1998). How many latent classes of delinquent/criminal careers? Results from mixed poisson regression analyses. American Journal of Sociology, 103, 1593–1630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danese, A., Pariante, C. M., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., & Poulton, R. (2007). Childhood maltreatment predicts adult inflammation in a life-course study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 1319–1324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, P., Jenkin, G., & Coope, P. (2003). New Zealand Socio-Economic Index 1996: An update and revision of the New Zealand Socio-Economic Index of Occupational Status. Wellington, New Zealand: Statistics New Zealand.Google Scholar
Eberhart-Phillips, J. E., Dickson, N. P., Paul, C., Herbison, G. P., Taylor, J., & Cunningham, A. L. (2001). Rising incidence and prevalence of herpes simplex type 2 infection in a cohort of 26 year old New Zealanders. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 77, 353–357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elley, W. B., & Irving, J. C. (1976). Revised Socio-Economic Index for New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 11, 25–36.Google Scholar
Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Menard, S. (1989). Multiple problem youth: Delinquency, substance use, and mental health problems. New York: Springer–Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enders, C. K. (2001). The performance of the full information maximum likelihood estimator in multiple regression models with missing data. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61, 713–740.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farrington, D. P. (1989). Early predictors of adolescent aggression and adult violence. Violence and Victims, 4, 79–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrington, D. P. (1995). The development of offending and antisocial behaviour from childhood: Key findings from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 929–964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrington, D. P., Gallagher, B., Morley, L., Stledger, R. J., & West, D. J. (1988). Are there any successful men from criminogenic backgrounds? Psychiatry—Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 51, 116–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, J. L. (2002). Male and female offending trajectories. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 159–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrer, E., & McArdle, J. J. (2003). Alternative structural models for multivariate longitudinal data analysis. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 10, 493–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giordano, P. C., Cernkovich, S. A., Stoff, D. M., Breiling, J., & Maser, J. D. (1997). Gender and antisocial behavior. Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 496–510). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Gorman-Smith, D., & Loeber, R. (2005). Are developmental pathways in disruptive behaviors the same for girls and boys? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 14, 15–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grundy, S. M., Pasternak, R., Greenland, P., Smith, S., & Fuster, V. (1999). Assessment of cardiovascular risk by use of multiple-risk-factor assessment equations: A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 34, 1348–1359.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hart, D., Atkins, R., & Fegley, S. (2003). Personality and development in childhood: A person-centered approach. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 68, 1–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hertzog, C., & Nesselroade, J. R. (2003). Assessing psychological change in adulthood: An overview of methodological issues. Psychology and Aging, 18, 639–657.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ho, D. W. T., Field, P. R., Irving, W. L., Packham, D. R., & Cunningham, A. L. (1993). Detection of immunoglobulin-M antibodies to glycoprotein G-2 by Western-blot (Immunoblot) for diagnosis of initial herpes-simplex virus Type-2 genital infections. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 31, 3157–3164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussong, A. M., Curran, P. J., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Carrig, M. M. (2004). Substance abuse hinders desistance in young adults' antisocial behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1029–1046.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaffee, S. R., Belsky, J., Harrington, H., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2006). When parents have a history of adolescent conduct disorder: How is the caregiving environment affected? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 309–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, P. J. (1981). New Zealand: A study of the educational system of New Zealand and a guide to the academic placement of students in educational institutions of the United States. Washington, DC: American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Swartz, M., Blazer, D. G., & Nelson, C. B. (1993). Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey I: Lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. Journal of Affective Disorders, 29, 85–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kratzer, L., & Hodgins, S. (1999). A typology of offenders: A test of Moffitt's theory among males and females from childhood to age 30. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 9, 57–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., & Mercy, J. A. (Eds.). (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva: World Health Organisation.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lacourse, E., Nagin, D., Tremblay, R. E., Vitaro, F., & Claes, M. (2003). Developmental trajectories of boys' delinquent group membership and facilitation of violent behaviors during adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 183–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lahey, B. B., Van Hulle, C. A., Waldman, I. D., Rodgers, J. L., D'Onofrio, B. M., Pedlow, S., et al. (2006). Testing descriptive hypotheses regarding sex differences in the development of conduct problems and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 737–755.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Little, R. J., & Rubin, D. B. (1987). Statistical analyses with missing data. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Lo, Y. T., Mendell, N. R., & Rubin, D. B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88, 767–778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lubke, G. H., & Muthén, B. O. (2004). Applying multi-group confirmatory factor models for continuous outcomes to Likert scale data complicates meaningful group comparisons. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 11, 514–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McArdle, J. J. (1996). Current directions in structural factor analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 5, 11–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McArdle, J. J. & Epstein, D. (1987). Latent growth curves within developmental structural equation models. Child Development, 58, 110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McArdle, J. J., Nesselroade, J. R., Schinka, J. A., & Velicer, W. F. (2003). Growth curve analysis in contemporary psychological research. Handbook of psychology: Research methods in psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 447–480). New York: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McMaster, L. E., Connolly, J., Pepler, D., & Craig, W. M. (2002). Peer to peer sexual harassment in early adolescence: A developmental perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 91–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meredith, W. (1993). Measurement invariance, factor analysis and factorial invariance. Psychometrika, 58, 525–543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Messer, J., Goodman, R., Rowe, R., Meltzer, H., & Maughan, B. (2006). Preadolescent conduct problems in girls and boys. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 184–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E. (1994). Natural histories of delinquency. In Wietekamp, E. & Kerner, H. J. (Eds.), Cross-national longitudinal research on human development and criminal behaviour (pp. 3–61). Dordrecht: Kluwer/Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (2004). Natural histories of delinquency. In Wietekamp, E. & Kerner, H. J. (Eds.), Cross-national longitudinal research on human development and criminal behaviour (pp. 3–61). Dordrecht: Kluwer/Academic Press.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (2006). Life-course-persistent and adolescent-limited antisocial behavior. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (pp. 570–598). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2001). Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 355–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Dickson, N., Silva, P., & Stanton, W. (1996). Childhood-onset versus adolescent-onset antisocial conduct problems in males: Natural history from ages 3 to 18 years. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 399–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., & Milne, B. J. (2002). Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: Follow-up at age 26 years. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 179–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Krueger, R. F., Magdol, L., Margolin, G., Silva, P. A., et al. (1997). Do partners agree about abuse in their relationship? A psychometric evaluation of interpartner agreement. Psychological Assessment, 9, 47–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. A. (2001). Sex differences in antisocial behaviour: Conduct disorder, delinquency, and violence in the Dunedin Longitudinal Study. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moos, R., & Moos, B. (1981). Family Environment Scale manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.Google Scholar
Moretti, M. M., & Odgers, C. L. (2006). Preface: Sex differences in the functions and precursors of adolescent aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 373–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moretti, M. M., Odgers, C. L., & Jackson, M. A. (2004). Girls and aggression: Contributing factors and intervention principles. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munoz, A., & Gange, S. J. (1998). Methodological issues for biomarkers and intermediate outcomes in cohort studies. Epidemiologic Reviews, 20, 29–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, B. (2004). Latent variable analysis: Growth mixture modeling and related techniques for longitudinal data. In Kaplan, D. (Ed.), Handbook of quantitative methodology for the social sciences (pp. 345–368). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Muthén, B., & Shedden, K. (1999). Finite mixture modeling with mixture outcomes using the EM algorithm. Biometrics, 55, 463–469.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, B. O., du Toit, S. H. C., & Spisic, D. (in press). Robust inference using weighted-least squares and quadratic estimating equations in latent variable modeling with categorical and continuous outcomes. Psychometrika.Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2004). Mplus users guide (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Nagin, D. S. (1999). Analyzing developmental trajectories: A semiparametric, group-based approach. Psychological Methods, 4, 139–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagin, D. S. (2005). Group-based modeling of development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagin, D. S., Farrington, D. P., & Moffitt, T. E. (1995). Life-course trajectories of different types of offenders. Criminology, 33, 111–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagin, D. S., & Land, K. C. (1993). Age, criminal careers, and population heterogeneity: Specification and estimation of a nonparametric, mixed poison model. Criminology, 31, 327–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagin, D. S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2001). Parental and early childhood predictors of persistent physical aggression in boys from kindergarten to high school. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newman, D. L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Magdol, L., Silva, P. A., & Stanton, W. (1996). Psychiatric disorder in a birth cohort of young adults: Prevalence, comorbidity, clinical significance, and new cases incidence from age 11 to 21. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 552–562.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odgers, C. L., Caspi, A., Broadbent, J. M., Dickson, N. P., Hancox, R., Harrington, H., et al. (2007). Prediction of differential adult health burden by conduct problem subtypes in males. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Odgers, C. L., Milne, B., Caspi, A., Crump, R., Poulton, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2007). Predicting prognosis for the conduct-problem boy: Can family history help? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1240–1249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Odgers, C. L., & Moretti, M. M. (2002). Aggressive and antisocial girls: Research update and challenges. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 1, 103–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearson, T. A., Mensah, G. A., Hong, Y., Smith, S. C., CDC, & AHA. (2004). CDC/AHA Workshop on markers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease: Application to clinical and public health practice. Circulation, 110, 499–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pepler, D., Craig, W., Yuile, A., Connolly, J., Putallaz, M., & Bierman, K. L. (Eds.). (2004). Girls who bully: A developmental and relational perspective. In Aggression, antisocial behavior, and violence among girls: A developmental perspective (pp. 90–109). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Pepler, D. J., Madsen, K. C., Webster, C., & Levene, K. S. (2005). The development and treatment of girlhood aggression. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Putallaz, M., & Bierman, K. L. (2004). Aggression, antisocial behavior, and violence among girls: A developmental perspective. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Quay, H. C. (1983). A dimensional approach to behavior disorder: The Revised Behavior Problem Checklist. School Psychology Review, 12, 244–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quay, H. C., & Peterson, D. R. (1993). The Revised Behavior Problem Checklist: Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Raftery, A. E. (1995). Bayesian model selection in social research. In Marsden, P. (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 111–163). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, F., Taylor, D. R., Flannery, E. M., Cowan, J. O., Greene, J. M., Herbison, G. P., & Sears, M. R. (2002). Risk factors for airway remodeling in asthma manifested by a low postbronchodilator FEV1/vital capacity ratio: A longitudinal population study from childhood to adulthood. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 165, 1480–1488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raykov, T. (2005). Analysis of longitudinal studies with missing data using covariance structure modeling with full-information maximum likelihood. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 12, 493–505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ridker, P. M., Wilson, P. W. F., & Grundy, S. M. (2004). Should C-reactive protein be added to metabolic syndrome and to assessment of global cardiovascular risk? Circulation, 109, 2818–2825.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, L. N., Cottler, L., Bucholz, K. K., & Compton, W. (1995). Diagnostic interview schedule for DSM-IV. St. Louis, MO: Washington University School of Medicine.Google Scholar
Robins, R. W., John, O. P., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1996). Resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled boys: Three replicable personality types. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 157–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodgers, B., Pickles, A., Power, C., Collishaw, S., & Maughan, B. (1999). Validity of the Malaise Inventory in general population samples. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 34, 333–341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., Tizard, J., & Whitmore, K. (1970). Education, health and behavior. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (2003). Life-course desisters? Trajectories of crime among delinquent boys followed to age 70. Criminology, 41, 555–592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (2005). A life-course view of the development of crime. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 602, 12–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaeffer, C. M., Petras, H., Ialongo, N., Masyn, K. E., Hubbard, S., Poduska, J., et al. (2006). A comparison of girls' and boys' aggressive–disruptive behavior trajectories across elementary school: Prediction to young adult antisocial outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 500–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schaeffer, C. M., Petras, H., Ialongo, N., Poduska, J., & Kellam, S. (2003). Modeling growth in boys' aggressive behavior across elementary school: Links to later criminal involvement, conduct disorder, and antisocial personality disorder. Developmental Psychology, 39, 1020–1035.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. Annals of Statistics, 6, 461–464.Google Scholar
Scottish Council for Research in Education. (1976). The Burt Word Reading Test, 1974 Revison. London: Hodder & Stoughton.Google Scholar
Sears, M. R., Greene, J. M., Willan, A. R., Wiecek, E. M., Taylor, D. R., Flannery, E. M., et al. (2003). A longitudinal, population-based, cohort study of childhood asthma followed to adulthood. New England Journal of Medicine, 349, 1414–1422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Serbin, L., Cooperman, J. M., Peters, P. L., Lehoux, P. M., Stack, D. M., & Schwartzman, A. E. (1998). Intergenerational transfer of psychosocial risk in women with childhood histories of aggression, withdrawal, or aggression and withdrawal. Developmental Psychology, 34, 1246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Serbin, L. A., Peters, P. L., McAffer, V. J., & Schwartzman, A. E. (1991). Childhood aggression and withdrawal as predictors of adolescent pregnancy, early parenthood, and environmental risk for the next generation. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 23, 318–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Lacourse, E., & Nagin, D. S. (2005). Developmental trajectories of conduct problems and hyperactivity from ages 2 to 10. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 931–942.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverthorn, P., & Frick, P. J. (1999). Developmental pathways to antisocial behavior: The delayed-onset pathway in girls. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 101–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverthorn, P., Frick, P. J., & Reynolds, R. (2001). Timing of onset and correlates of severe conduct problems in adjudicated girls and boys. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23, 171–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, H. N., & Sickmund, M. (2006). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2006 national report. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.Google Scholar
Sorbom, D. (1974). A general method for studying differences in factor means and factor structure between groups. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 27, 229–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, D. R., Fergusson, D. M., Milne, B. J., Horwood, L. J., Moffitt, T. E., Sears, M. R., et al. (2002). A longitudinal study of the effects of tobacco and cannabis exposure on lung function in young adults. Addiction, 97, 1055–1061.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomson, W. M., Broadbent, J. M., Poulton, R., & Beck, J. D. (2006). Changes in periodontal disease experience from age 26 to 32 in a birth cohort. Journal of Periodontology, 947–954.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thurstone, T. G., & Thurstone, L. L. (1973). The SRA verbal form. Chicago: Science Research Associates.Google Scholar
Tremblay, R. E. (2000). The development of aggressive behavior during childhood: What have we learned in the past century? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 129–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tremblay, R. E., Hartup, W. W., & Archer, J. (2005). Developmental origins of aggression. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D. S., Seguin, J. R., Zoccolillo, M., Zelazo, P. D., Boivin, M., et al. (2004). Physical aggression during early childhood: Trajectories and predictors. Pediatrics, 114, E43–E50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Underwood, M. K. (2003). Social aggression among girls. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1974). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised. New York: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
White, N. A., & Piquero, A. R. (2004). A preliminary empirical test of Silverthorn and Frick's delayed-onset pathway in girls using an urban, African-American, US-based sample. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 14, 291–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiesner, M., & Capaldi, D. M. (2003). Relations of childhood and adolescent factors to offending trajectories of young men. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, 231–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiesner, M., & Windle, M. (2004). Assessing covariates of adolescent delinquency trajectories: A latent growth mixture modeling approach. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 431–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfgang, M. E., Thornberry, T. P., & Figlio, R. M. (1987). From boy to man, from delinquency to crime. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Wright, B. R., Caspi, A., Moffit, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1998). Personal characteristics associated with entrance into doubled-up housing—A common antecedent to homelessness. Social Service Review, 72, 92–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xie, H., Cairns, B. D., Cairns, R. B., Pepler, D. J., Madsen, K. C., Webster, C., et al. (Eds.). (2005). The development of aggressive behaviors among girls: Measurement issues, social functions, and differential trajectories. In The development and treatment of girlhood aggression (pp. 105–136). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Yu, C. Y., & Muthén, B. (2002). Evaluation of model fit indices for latent variable models with categorical and continuous outcomes (Technical Report). Los Angeles: University of California at Los Angeles, Graduate School of Education & Information Studies.Google Scholar