Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T18:44:52.815Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Father-child play, child emotional dysregulation, and adolescent internalizing symptoms: A longitudinal multiple mediation analysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 December 2018

Jenifer Gregory ,
Katherine Little Kivisto ,
Neil H. Perdue  and
David B. Estell
Jenifer Gregory
Affiliation:
College of Applied and Behavioral Sciences, University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
Katherine Little Kivisto*
Affiliation:
College of Applied and Behavioral Sciences, University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
Neil H. Perdue
Affiliation:
College of Applied and Behavioral Sciences, University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
David B. Estell
Affiliation:
Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
*
Address for correspondence: Katherine Little Kivisto, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Ave, Indianapolis, IN 46227; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Emerging literature suggests fathers may contribute uniquely to child development and emotional health through play. In the present study, a multiple mediational model was analyzed using data from 476 families that participated in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. After accounting for infant–mother attachment, infant temperament, and family income and stability, a significant indirect effect from father–child play quality to adolescent internalizing symptoms was found through father-reported child emotional dysregulation, B = –.05, 95% confidence interval; CI [–.14, –.01]. Specifically, in first grade, dyads where fathers were rated highly on sensitivity and stimulation during play, and children demonstrated high felt security and affective mutuality during play, had children with fewer father-reported emotional dysregulation problems in third grade, B = –.23, 95% CI [–.39, –.06]. Children with fewer emotional dysregulation problems had lower self-reported internalizing symptoms at age 15, B = .23, 95% CI [.01, .45]. Mothers’ ratings of children's emotional dysregulation were not a significant mediator. Results are discussed regarding the importance of father–child play for children's adjustment as well as the usefulness of inclusion of fathers in child developmental research.

Keywords

fathersfather-child relationshipsfather-child playmother-child attachmentparent-child attachmentchild emotional regulationadolescent internalizingmediation
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 31 , Issue 4 , October 2019 , pp. 1325 - 1338
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms and Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Allen, J. P. (2008). The attachment system in adolescence. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 319–335). New York: Guildford Press.Google Scholar
Allen, J. P., & Miga, E. M. (2010). Attachment in adolescence: A move to the level of emotion regulation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27, 181–190.Google Scholar
Allen, J. P., Moore, C., Kuperminc, G., & Bell, K. (1998). Attachment and adolescent psychosocial functioning. Child Development, 69, 1406–1419. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06220.xGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.Google Scholar
Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive functioning (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8, 71–82. doi:10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724Google Scholar
Anderson, P., Anderson, V., & Garth, J. (2001). Assessment and development of organizational ability: The Rey Complex Figure Organizational Strategy Score (RCF-OSS). Clinical Neuropsychologist, 15, 81–94. doi:10.1076/clin.15.1.81.1905Google Scholar
Apperly, I., & Robinson, E. (2002). Five-year-olds’ handling of reference and description in the domains of language and mental representation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 83, 53–75. doi:10.1.1.565.2932Google Scholar
Axline, V. (1969). Play therapy (Rev. ed.). New York: Ballantine Books.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Garduque, L., & Hrncir, E. (1984). Assessing performance, competence, and executive capacity in infant play: Relations to home environment and security of attachment. Developmental Psychology, 20, 406–417. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.20.3.406Google Scholar
Berlin, L., & Cassidy, J. (2003). Mothers’ self-reported control of their preschool children's emotional expressiveness: A longitudinal study of associations with infant–mother attachment and children's emotion regulation. Social Development, 12, 477–495. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00244Google Scholar
Bianchi, S. (2014). A demographic perspective on family change. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 6, 35–44. doi:10.1111/jftr.12029Google Scholar
Bögels, S., & Phares, V. (2008). Fathers’ role in the etiology, prevention and treatment of child anxiety: A review and new model. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 539–558. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.07.011Google Scholar
Bosquet, M., & Egeland, B. (2006). The development and maintenance of anxiety symptoms from infancy through adolescence in a longitudinal sample. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 517–550. doi:10.1017/S0954579406060275Google Scholar
Bretherton, I. (2010). Fathers in attachment theory and research: A review. Early Child Development and Care, 180, 9–23. doi:10.1080/03004430903414661Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., & Ge, X. (2001). Linking parenting processes and self-regulation to psychological functioning and alcohol use during early adolescence. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 82–94. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.15.1.82Google Scholar
Brumariu, L. E., & Kerns, K. A. (2010). Parent–child attachment and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence: A review of empirical findings and future directions. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 177–203. doi:10.1017/S0954579409990344Google Scholar
Brumariu, L. E., & Kerns, K. A. (2013). Pathways to anxiety: Contributions of attachment history, temperament, peer competence, and ability to manage intense emotions. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 44, 504–515. doi:10.1007/s10578-012-0345-7Google Scholar
Brumariu, L. E., Kerns, K. A., & Seibert, A. (2012). Mother-child attachment, emotion regulation, and anxiety symptoms in middle childhood. Personal Relationships, 19, 569–585. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2011.01379.xGoogle Scholar
Cabrera, N. J., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Bradley, R. H., Hofferth, S., & Lamb, M. E. (2000). Fatherhood in the twenty-first century. Child Development, 71, 127–136. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00126Google Scholar
Calkins, S., & Hill, A. (2007). Caregiver influences on emerging emotion regulation: Biological and environmental transactions in early development. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 229–248). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Carlson, E., & Sroufe, L. A. (1995). The contribution of attachment theory to developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Developmental processes and psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches (pp. 581–617). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. (2016). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. SMA 16-4984, NSDUH Series H-51). Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services.Google Scholar
Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A. (2013). Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 735–765. doi:10.1037/a0030737Google Scholar
Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (1978). And daddy makes three: The father's impact on mother and young child. Child Development, 49, 466–478. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1978.tb02337.xGoogle Scholar
Cole, P., Martin, S., & Dennis, T. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75, 317–333. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00673.xGoogle Scholar
Cooper, G., Hoffman, K., Powell, B., & Marvin, R. (2007). The Circle of Security intervention: Differential diagnosis and differential treatment. In Berlin, L. J. (Ed.). Enhancing early attachments: Theory, research, intervention, and policy (pp. 127–151). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Copen, C. E., Daniels, K., Vespa, J., & Mosher, W. D. (2012). First marriages in the United States: Data from the 2006–2010 National Survey of Family Growth (National Health Statistics Reports, 49). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.Google Scholar
Cotter, R. B., Burke, J. D., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Loeber, R. (2005). Contacting participants for follow-up: How much effort is required to retain participants in longitudinal studies? Evaluation and Program Planning, 28, 15–21. doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2004.10.002Google Scholar
Criss, M. M., Shaw, D. S., & Ingoldsby, E. M. (2003). Mother–son positive synchrony in middle childhood: Relation to antisocial behavior. Social Development, 12, 379–400. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00239Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., & Cicchetti, D. (1990). Toward a transactional model of relations between attachment and depression. In Greenberg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years (pp. 339–372). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Davis, T. L. (1995). Gender differences in masking negative emotions: Ability or motivation? Developmental Psychology, 31, 660.Google Scholar
Deater-Deckard, K., Atzaba-Poria, N., & Pike, A. (2004). Mother—and father—child mutuality in Anglo and Indian British families: A link with lower externalizing problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 609–620. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000047210.81880.14Google Scholar
de Wolff, M. S., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571–591. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb04218.xGoogle Scholar
Diener, M. L., Mangelsdorf, S. C., Mchale, J. L., & Frosch, C. A. (2002). Infants’ behavioral strategies for emotion regulation with fathers and mothers: Associations with emotional expressions and attachment auality. Infancy, 3, 153–174. doi:10.1207/S15327078IN0302_3Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Lansford, J. E., Burks, V. S., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., Fontaine, R., & Price, J. M. (2003). Peer rejection and social information-processing factors in the development of aggressive behavior problems in children. Child Development, 74, 374–393. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.7402004Google Scholar
Dumont, C., & Paquette, D. (2013). What about the child's tie to the father? A new insight into fathering, father-child attachment, children's socio-emotional development and theory. Early Child Development and Care, 183, 430–446. doi:10.1080/03004430.2012.711592Google Scholar
Easterbrooks, M. A., & Goldberg, W. A. (1984). Toddler development in the family: Impact of father involvement and parenting characteristics. Child Development, 55, 740–752.Google Scholar
Egeland, B., & Heister, M. (1993). Teaching task rating scales. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Institute of Child Development.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 241–273. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0904_1Google Scholar
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Flanders, J. L., Simard, M., Paquette, D., Parent, S., Vitaro, F., Pihl, R. O., & Séguin, J. R. (2010). Rough-and-tumble play and the development of physical aggression and emotion regulation: A five-year follow-up study. Journal of Family Violence, 25, 357–367. doi:10.1007/s10896-009-9297-5Google Scholar
Flavell, J. (1968). The development of role-taking and communication skills in children. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Fox, N. A., & Calkins, S. D. (2003). The development of self-control of emotion: Intrinsic and extrinsic influences. Motivation and Emotion, 27(Pt. 1), 7–26. doi:10.1023/A:1023622324898Google Scholar
Fredriksen, K. (1999). Family caregiving responsibilities among lesbians and gay men. Social Work, 44, 142–155. doi:10.1093/sw/44.2.142Google Scholar
Freeman, H., Newland, L. A., & Coyl, D. D. (2010). New directions in father attachment. Early Child Development and Care, 180, 1–8. doi:10.1080/03004430903414646Google Scholar
Garside, R. B. (2004). Parental socialization of discrete positive and negative emotions: Implications for emotional functioning. (Doctoral dissertation, The Catholic University of America, 2003). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65, 4828.Google Scholar
Gartstein, M. A., & Bateman, A. F. (2008). Early manifestations of childhood depression: Influences of infant temperament and parental depressive symptoms. Infant and Child Development, 17, 223–248. doi:10.1002/icd.549Google Scholar
Gilliom, M., Shaw, D. S., Beck, J. E., Schonberg, M. A., & Lukon, J. L. (2002). Anger regulation in disadvantaged preschool boys: Strategies, antecedents, and the development of self-control. Developmental Psychology, 38, 222–235. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.38.2.222Google Scholar
Goodsell, T. L., & Meldrum, J. T. (2010). Nurturing fathers: A qualitative examination of child–father attachment. Early Child Development and Care, 180, 249–262. doi:10.1080/03004430903415098Google Scholar
Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26, 1–26. doi:10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781Google Scholar
Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. A. (2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3–24). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K. E., Fremmer-bombik, E., Kindler, H., Scheuerer-Englisch, H., & Zimmermann, P. (2002). The uniqueness of the child-father attachment relationship: Fathers’ sensitive and challenging play as a pivotal variable in a 16-year longitudinal study. Social Development, 11, 307–331. doi:10.3149/jms.0901.41Google Scholar
Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K., Kindler, H., & Zimmermann, P. (2008). A wider view of attachment and exploration: The influence of mothers and fathers on the development of psychological security from infancy to young adulthood. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability–transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773–796. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.773Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 128–140. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.1.128Google Scholar
Haubenstricker, J., & Seefeldt, V. (1986). Acquisition of motor skills during childhood. In Seefeldt, S. (Ed.), Physical activity and well-being (pp. 41–92). Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance.Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression based approach. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Jia, R., Kotila, L. E., & Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J. (2012). Transactional relations between father involvement and preschoolers’ socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 26, 848–857. doi:10.1037/a0030245Google Scholar
John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2004). Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, individual differences, and life span development. Journal of Personality, 72, 1301–1334. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00298.xGoogle Scholar
Kazura, K. (2000). Fathers qualitative and quantitative involvement: An investigation of attachment, play, and social interactions. Journal of Men's Studies, 9, 41–57. doi:10.3149/jms.0901.41Google Scholar
Kerns, K. A., Tomich, P. L., Aspelmeier, J. E., & Contreras, J. M. (2000). Attachment-based assessments of parent–child relationships in middle childhood. Developmental Psychology, 36, 614–626. doi:10.1037%2F0012-1649.36.5.614Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, J., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., McLaughlin, K. A., … Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Severity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 381–389. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1603Google Scholar
Kiff, C. J., Lengua, L. J., & Bush, N. (2011). Temperatment variations in sensitivity to parenting: Predicting changes in depression and anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 1199–1212. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9539-xGoogle Scholar
Klimes-Dougan, B., Brand, A. E., Zahn-Waxler, C., Usher, B., Hastings, P. D., Kendziora, K., & Garside, R. B. (2007). Parental emotion socialization in adolescence: Differences in sex, age and problem status. Social Development, 16, 326–342. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00387.xGoogle Scholar
Kobak, R., & Sceery, A. (1988). Attachment in late adolescence: Working models, affect regulation, and representations of self and others. Child Development, 59, 135–146. doi:10.2307/1130395Google Scholar
Krueger, R. F. (1999). The structure of common mental disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 921–926. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.56.10.921Google Scholar
Larsson, H., Viding, E., Rijsdijk, F. V., & Plomin, R. (2008). Relationship between parental negativity and childhood antisocial behavior over time: A bidirectional effects model in a longitudinal genetically informative design. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 633–645. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9151-2Google Scholar
Mattanah, J. F. (2001). Parental psychological autonomy and children's academic competence and behavioral adjustment in late childhood: More than just limit-setting and warmth. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47, 355–376. doi:10.1353/mpq.2001.0017Google Scholar
Medoff-Cooper, B., Carey, W. B., & McDevitt, S. C. (1993). The Early Infant Temperament Questionnaire. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 14, 230–235. doi:10.1097/00004703-199308010-00004Google Scholar
Merikangas, K. R., He, J., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., … Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Study—Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 980–989. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017Google Scholar
Merikangas, K. R., Nakamura, E. F., & Kessler, R. C. (2009). Epidemiology of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 11, 7–20.Google Scholar
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244, 933–938. doi:10.1126/science.2658056Google Scholar
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16, 361–388. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00389.xGoogle Scholar
Newland, L. A., & Coyl, D. D. (2010). Fathers’ role as attachment figures: An interview with Sir Richard Bowlby. Early Child Development and Care, 180, 25–32. doi:10.1080/03004430903414679Google Scholar
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2006). Infant-mother attachment classification: Risk and protection in relation to changing maternal caregiving quality. Developmental Psychology, 1, 38–58.Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424–443. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.424Google Scholar
Paquette, D. (2004). Theorizing the father-child relationship: Mechanisms and developmental outcomes. Human Development, 47, 193–219. doi:10.1159/000078723Google Scholar
Pardini, D. A., Fite, P. J., & Burke, J. D. (2008). Bidirectional associations between parenting practices and conduct problems in boys from childhood to adolescence: The moderating effect of age and African-American ethnicity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 647–662. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9162-zGoogle Scholar
Parke, R. D. (1994). Progress, paradigms, and unresolved problems: A commentary on recent advances in our understanding of children's emotions. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40, 157–169.Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child (Cook, M., Trans.). New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Pianta, R. C. (1994). Patterns of relationships between children and kindergarten teachers. Journal of School Psychology, 32, 15–31. doi:10.1016/0022-4405(94)90026-4Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717–731.Google Scholar
Raffaelli, M., Crockett, L. J., & Shen, Y. L. (2005). Developmental stability and change in self-regulation from childhood to adolescence. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 166, 54–76. doi:10.3200/GNTP.166.1.54-76Google Scholar
Rosenstein, D. S., & Horowitz, H. A. (1996). Adolescent attachment and psychopathology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 244–253. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.64.2.244Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Sheese, B. E. (2007). Temperament and emotion regulation. In Gross, J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 331–350). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Rucker, D. D., Preacher, K. J., Tormala, Z. L., & Petty, R. E. (2011). Mediation analysis in social psychology: Current practices and new recommendations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5, 359–371. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00355.xGoogle Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., Troop-Gordon, W., Lambert, S. F., & Natsuaki, M. N. (2014). Long-term consequences of pubertal timing for youth depression: Identifying personal and contextual pathways for risk. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 1423–1444. doi:10.1017/S0954579414001126Google Scholar
Russell, A., Pettit, G. S., & Mize, J. (1998). Horizontal qualities in parent–child relationships: Parallels with and possible consequences for children's peer relationships. Developmental Review, 18, 313–352. doi:10.1006/drev.1997.0466Google Scholar
Sedlak, A. J., Mettenburg, J., Basena, M., Petta, I., McPherson, K., Greene, A., & Li, S. (2010). Fourth National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS–4): Report to Congress. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families.Google Scholar
Shaffer, D. (2009). Social and personality development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
Sheppes, G., & Gross, J. J. (2011). Is timing everything? Temporal considerations in emotion regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 319–331. doi:10.1177/1088868310395778Google Scholar
Simonds, J., Kieras, J. E., Rueda, M. R., & Rothbart, M. K. (2007). Effortful control, executive attention, and emotional regulation in 7–10-year-old children. Cognitive Development, 22, 474–488.Google Scholar
Solomon, J., & George, C. (1999). The measurement of attachment security in infancy and childhood. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 287–316). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Spear, B. A. (2002). Adolescent Growth and Development. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 102(3), S23–29. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(02)90418-9Google Scholar
Sugimura, N., & Rudolph, K. D. (2012). Temperamental differences in children's reactions to peer victimization. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 314–328. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.656555Google Scholar
Suveg, C., & Zeman, J. (2004). Emotion regulation in children with anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 750–759. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3304_10Google Scholar
Thomassin, K., & Suveg, C. (2014). Reciprocal positive affect and well-regulated, adjusted children: A unique contribution of fathers. Parenting, 14, 28–46. doi:10.1080/15295192.2014.880017Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 25–52. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01276.xGoogle Scholar
Van Fleet, R., Sywulak, A. E., & Sniscak, C. C. (2010). Child-centered play therapy. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Kroonenberg, P. (1988). Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: A meta-analysis of the Strange Situation. Child Development, 59, 147–156.Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H., Schuengel, C., & Kranenburg, M. (1999). Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 225–249.Google Scholar
Vervoort, L., Wolters, L., Hogendoorn, S., de Haan, E., Boer, F., & Prins, P. (2010). Sensitivity of Gray's Behavioral Inhibition System in clinically anxious and non-anxious children and adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 629–633. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.12.021Google Scholar
Volling, B. L., McElwain, N. L., Notaro, P. C., & Herrera, C. (2002). Parents’ emotional availability and infant emotional competence: Predictors of parent-infant attachment and emerging self-regulation. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 447–465. doi:10.1037//0893-3200.16.4.447Google Scholar
Vondra, J. I., Shaw, D., Swearingen, L., Cohen, M., & Owens, E. B. (2001). Attachment stability and emotional and behavioral regulation from infancy to preschool age. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 13–33.Google Scholar
Weinberg, A., & Klonsky, E. D. (2009). Measurement of emotion dysregulation in adolescents. Psychological Assessment, 21, 616–621. doi:10.1037/a0016669Google Scholar
Weir, K. (2016). The risks of earlier puberty. Monitor on Psychology, 47, 40.Google Scholar
Williams, M. N. (2011). The changing roles of grandparents raising grandchildren. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 21, 948–962.Google Scholar
Wills, T. A., Gibbons, F.X., Gerrard, M., & Brody, G. (2000). Protection and vulnerability processes for early onset of substance use: A test among African-American children. Health Psychology, 19, 253–63. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.19.3.253Google Scholar
Yap, M. B. H., Allen, N. B., & Sheeber, L. (2007). Using an emotion regulation framework to understand the role of temperament and family processes in risk for adolescent depressive disorders. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 10, 180–196. doi:10.1007/s10567-006-0014-0Google Scholar
Yap, M. B. H., Schwartz, O. S., Byrne, M. L., Simmons, J. G., & Allen, N. B. (2010). Maternal positive and negative interaction behaviors and early adolescents’ depressive symptoms: Adolescent emotion regulation as a mediator. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 1014–1043. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00665.xGoogle Scholar
Zeman, J., Cassano, M., Perrt-Parrish, C., & Stegall, S. (2006). Emotion regulation in children and adolescents. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 27, 155–168.Google Scholar
Zeman, J., Penza, S., Shipman, K., & Young, G. (1997). Preschoolers as functionalists: The impact of social context on emotion regulation. Child Study Journal, 27, 41–67.Google Scholar