Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T19:15:54.683Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Family sociodemographic resources moderate the path from toddlers’ hard-to-manage temperament to parental control to disruptive behavior in middle childhood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 March 2020

Sanghag Kim Open the ORCID record for Sanghag Kim [Opens in a new window]  and
Grazyna Kochanska
Sanghag Kim*
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology, Hanyang University, Seoul, South Korea
Grazyna Kochanska
Affiliation:
Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Sanghag Kim, Department of Sociology, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul, South Korea; [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Research inspired by ecological perspectives has amply documented broad effects of the family's sociodemographic resources on children's outcomes, with parents’ young age, low education, and low income considered risk factors. Typically, sociodemographic characteristics have been studied as influencing child outcomes either directly or indirectly through parenting. We tested a more nuanced longitudinal model in a community sample of 102 infants, mothers, and fathers. We conceptualized family sociodemographic resources, measured as a composite of parents’ ages, education, and income, as moderating developmental cascades from children's hard-to-manage temperament to parental power-assertive control to children's disruptive behavior problems. Children's temperament measures encompassed proneness to anger and inability to delay, observed at 2 and 3 years in standard laboratory episodes. We observed parents’ control at 4.5 and 5.5 years in lengthy naturalistic prohibition paradigms, and obtained parental ratings of children's disruptive behavior at 6.5 and 8 years. As expected, moderated mediation analyses, covarying stability of children's difficulty and parental control, revealed that the cascade from hard-to-manage temperament to child behavior problems, mediated by parental power-assertive control, was present in families with relatively more disadvantaged sociodemographic characteristics, or fewer resources, but absent in families with more advantageous sociodemographic features, or more resources. The findings were parallel for mother– and father–child dyads.

Keywords

child developmentoutcomesparentingsociodemographic resources
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 33 , Issue 1 , February 2021 , pp. 160 - 172
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Ayoub, M., Gosling, S. D., Potter, J., Shanahan, M., & Roberts, B. W. (2018). The relations between parental socioeconomic status, personality, and life outcomes. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9, 338–352. doi:10.1177/1948550617707018CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baharudin, R., & Luster, T. (1998). Factors related to the quality of the home environment and children's achievement. Journal of Family Issues, 19, 375–403. doi:10.1177/019251398019004002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, J. E. (1980). The concept of difficult temperament. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, 26, 299–319.Google Scholar
Bates, J. E., Schermerhorn, A. C., & Petersen, I. T. (2012). Temperament and parenting in developmental perspective. In Zentner, M. & Shiner, R. L. (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 425–441). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Baumrind, D., Larzelere, R. E., & Owens, E. B. (2010). Effects of preschool parents' power: Assertive patterns and practices on adolescent development. Parenting: Science and Practice, 10, 157–201. doi:10.1080/15295190903290790CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55, 83–96. doi:10.2307/1129836CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., Hsieh, K. H., & Crnic, K. (1998). Mothering, fathering, and infant negativity as antecedents of boys’ externalizing problems and inhibition at age 3 years: Differential susceptibility to rearing experience? Development and Psychopathology, 10, 301–319. doi:10.1017/S095457949800162XCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berlin, L. J., Brady-Smith, C., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002). Links between childbearing age and observed maternal behaviors with 14-month-olds in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project. Infant Mental Health Journal, 23, 104–129. doi:10.1002/imhj.10007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., Putnick, D. L., Suwalsky, J. T. D., & Gini, M. (2006). Maternal chronological age, prenatal and perinatal history, social support, and parenting of infants. Child Development, 77, 875–892. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00908.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371–399. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22, 723–742. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.22.6.723CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burchinal, M., Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M., & Key Family Life Project Investigators. (2008). Cumulative social risk, parenting, and infant development in rural low-income communities. Parenting: Science and Practice, 8, 41–69. doi:10.1080/15295190701830672CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cabrera, N. J., Fitzgerald, H. E., Bradley, R. H., & Roggman, L. (2014). The ecology of father–child relationships: An expanded model. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 6, 336–354. doi:10.1111/jftr.12054Google Scholar
Cabrera, N. J., & Volling, B. L. (2019). Moving research on fathering and children's development forward: Priorities and recommendations for the future. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 84, 107–117.Google Scholar
Cabrera, N. J., Volling, B. L., & Barr, R. (2018). Fathers are parents, too! Widening the lens on parenting for children's development. Child Development Perspectives, 12, 152–157. doi:10.1111/cdep.12275CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, L., Schwartz, D., Dodge, K. A., & McBride-Chang, C. (2003). Harsh parenting in relation to child emotion regulation and aggression. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 598–606. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.17.4.598CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chao, R. K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65, 1111–1119. doi:10.2307/1131308CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600. doi:10.1017/S0954579400007318Google Scholar
Conger, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2007). An interactionist perspective on the socioeconomic context of human development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 175–199. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085551CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conger, R. D., Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65, 541–561. doi:10.2307/1131401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crockenberg, S. (1986). Are temperamental differences in babies associated with predictable differences in care-giving? In Lerner, J. & Lerner, R. (Eds.), Temperament and psychosocial interaction in children: New directions for child development (Vol. 31, pp. 53–73). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Dadds, M. R., & Salmon, K. (2003). Punishment insensitivity and parenting: Temperament and learning as interacting risks for antisocial behavior. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 69–86. doi:10.1023/A:1023762009877CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deater-Deckard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (1997). Externalizing behavior problems and discipline revisited: Nonlinear effects and variation by culture, context, and gender. Psychological Inquiry, 8, 161–175. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0803_1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1998). Multiple risk factors in the development of externalizing behavior problems: Group and individual differences. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 469–493. doi:10.1017/s0954579498001709CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dishion, T. J., & Patterson, G. R. (2006). The development and ecology of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 503–541). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Essex, M. J., Boyce, W. T., Goldstein, L. H., Armstrong, J. M., Kraemer, H. C., Kupfer, D. J., & MacArthur Assessment Battery Working Group. (2002). The confluence of mental, physical, social, and academic difficulties in middle childhood: II. Developing the MacArthur Health and Behavior Questionnaire. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 588–603. doi:10.1097/00004583-200205000-00017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59, 77–92. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.77CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W., Li, D., & Whipple, S. S. (2013). Cumulative risk and child development. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 1342–1396. doi:10.1037/a0031808CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fagan, J., Day, R., Lamb, M. E., & Cabrera, N. J. (2014). Should researchers conceptualize differently the dimensions of parenting for fathers and mothers? Journal of Family Theory & Review, 6, 390–405. doi:10.1111/jftr.12044Google Scholar
Fritz, M. S., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2007). Required sample size to detect the mediated effect. Psychological Science, 18, 233–239. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01882.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gadow, K. D., & Sprafkin, J. N. (2002). Child Symptom Inventory 4: Screening and norms manual. Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus.Google Scholar
Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 539–579. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldsmith, H. H., & Rothbart, M. K. (1999). Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery, Prelocomotor Version 3.1. Unpublished manuscript, University of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Grolnick, W. S., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2009). Issues and challenges in studying parental control: Toward a new conceptualization. Child Development Perspectives, 3, 165–170. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00099.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hackman, D. A., & Farah, M. J. (2009). Socioeconomic status and the developing brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 65–73. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.11.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hoff, E., Laursen, B., & Tardif, T. (2002). Socioeconomic status and parenting. In Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 2. Biology and ecology of parenting (2nd ed., pp. 231–252). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Jansen, P. W., Raat, H., Mackenbach, J. P., Jaddoe, V. W., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., & Tiemeier, H. (2009). Socioeconomic inequalities in infant temperament. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 44, 87–95. doi:10.1007/s00127-008-0416-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jonas, K., & Kochanska, G. (2018). An imbalance of approach and effortful control predicts externalizing problems: Support for extending the dual-systems model into early childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46, 1573–1583. doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0400-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, S., & Kochanska, G. (2012). Child temperament moderates effects of parent-child mutuality on self-regulation: A relationship-based path for emotionally negative infants. Child Development, 83, 1275–1289. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01778.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, S., & Kochanska, G. (2015). Mothers’ power assertion; children's negative, adversarial orientation; and future behavior problems in low-income families: Early maternal responsiveness as a moderator of the developmental cascade. Journal of Family Psychology, 29, 1–9. doi:10.1037/a0038430CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Aksan, N., Penney, S. J., & Boldt, L. J. (2007). Parental personality as an inner resource that moderates the impact of ecological adversity on parenting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 136–150. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.136CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Boldt, L. J., & Goffin, K. C. (2019). Early relational experience: A foundation for the unfolding dynamics of parent-child socialization. Child Development Perspectives, 13, 41–47. doi:10.1111/cdep.12308CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., & Kim, S. (2012). Toward a new understanding of legacy of early attachments for future antisocial trajectories: Evidence from two longitudinal studies. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 783–806. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000375CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochanska, G., Kim, S., & Koenig Nordling, J. (2012). Challenging circumstances moderate the links between mothers’ personality traits and their parenting in low-income families with young children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 1040–1049. doi:10.1037/a0030386CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36, 220–232. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.2.220CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Philibert, R. A., & Barry, R. A. (2009). Interplay of genes and early mother-child relationship in the development of self-regulation from toddler to preschool age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1331–1338. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02050.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohn, M. L. (1959). Social class and parental values. American Journal of Sociology, 64, 337–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lansford, J. E., Chang, L., Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Oburu, P., Palmérus, K., … Quinn, N. (2005). Physical discipline and children's adjustment: Cultural normativeness as a moderator. Child Development, 76, 1234–1246. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00847.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lengua, L. J., Kiff, C., Moran, L., Zalewski, M., Thompson, S., Cortes, R., & Ruberry, E. (2014). Parenting mediates the effects of income and cumulative risk on the development of effortful control. Social Development, 23, 631–649. doi:10.1111/sode.12071CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lengua, L. J., & Wachs, T. D. (2012). Temperament and risk: Resilient and vulnerable responses to adversity. In Zentner, M. & Shiner, R. (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 519–540). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lipscomb, S. T., Leve, L. D., Harold, G. T., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S., Ge, X., & Reiss, D. (2011). Trajectories of parenting and child negative emotionality during infancy and toddlerhood: A longitudinal analysis. Child Development, 82, 1661–1675. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01639.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorber, M. F., & Egeland, B. (2011). Parenting and infant difficulty: Testing a mutual exacerbation hypothesis to predict early onset conduct problems. Child Development, 82, 2006–2020. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01652.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99–128. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malmberg, L. E., & Flouri, E. (2011). The comparison and interdependence of maternal and paternal influences on young children's behavior and resilience. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40, 434–444. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.563469CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 185–204. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.185CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). Mplus user's guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
O'Connor, T. G. (2002). Annotation: The “effects” of parenting reconsidered: Findings, challenges, and applications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 555–572. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00046CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Padilla, C. M., & Ryan, R. M. (2019). The link between child temperament and low-income mothers’ and fathers’ parenting. Infant Mental Health Journal, 40, 217–233.Google ScholarPubMed
Pardini, D. A. (2008). Novel insights into longstanding theories of bidirectional parent-child influences: Introduction to the special section. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 627–631. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9231-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paulussen-Hoogeboom, M. C., Stams, G. J. J., Hermanns, J., & Peetsma, T. T. (2007). Child negative emotionality and parenting from infancy to preschool: A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 43, 438–453. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.438CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearlin, L. I., & Kohn, M. L. (1966). Social class, occupation, and parental values: A cross-national study. American Sociological Review, 31, 466–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pettit, G. S., & Arsiwalla, D. D. (2008). Commentary on special section on “Bidirectional parent–child relationships”: The continuing evolution of dynamic, transactional models of parenting and youth behavior problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 711–718. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9242-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42, 185–227. doi:10.1080/00273170701341316CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnam, S. P., Sanson, A. V., & Rothbart, M. K. (2002). Child temperament and parenting. In Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.), Handbook of parenting (Vol. 1, pp. 255–277). London: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Ragozin, A. S., Basham, R. B., Crnic, K. A., Greenberg, M. T., & Robinson, N. M. (1982). Effects of maternal age on parenting role. Developmental Psychology, 18, 627–634. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.4.627CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In Damon, W. & Lerner, R. M. (Series Eds.) and Eisenberg, N. (Volume Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 99–166). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rothbaum, F., & Weisz, J. R. (1994). Parental caregiving and child externalizing behavior in nonclinical samples: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 55–74. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.55CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Barocas, R., Zax, M., & Greenspan, S. (1987). Intelligence quotient scores of 4-year-old children: Social-environmental risk factors. Pediatrics, 79, 343–350.Google ScholarPubMed
Sanson, A., Hemphill, S. A., & Smart, D. (2004). Connections between temperament and social development: A review. Social Development, 13, 142–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sassenberg, K., & Ditrich, L. (2019). Research in social psychology changed between 2011 and 2016: Larger sample sizes, more self-report measures, and more online studies. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 2, 107–114. doi:10.1177/2515245919838781CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scaramella, L. V., & Leve, L. D. (2004). Clarifying parent-child reciprocities during early childhood: The early childhood coercion model. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 7, 89–107. doi:10.1023/B:CCFP.0000030287.13160.a3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sentse, M., Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., Verhulst, F. C., & Ormel, J. (2009). Buffers and risks in temperament and family for early adolescent psychopathology: Generic, conditional, or domain-specific effects? The TRAILS study. Developmental Psychology, 45, 419–430. doi:10.1037/a0014072CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, D. S., & Bell, R. Q. (1993). Developmental theories of parental contributors to antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 493–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422–445. doi:10.1037/1082- 989X.7.4.422CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stride, C. B., Gardner, S., Catley, N., & Thomas, F. (2015). Mplus code for mediation, moderation, and moderated mediation models. Retrieved from http://www.offbeat.group. shef.ac.uk/FIO/mplusmedmod.htmGoogle Scholar
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., Hentges, R. F., & Coe, J. L. (2017). Family instability and children's effortful control in the context of poverty: Sometimes a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 685–696. doi:10.1017/S0954579416000407CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taraban, L., & Shaw, D. S. (2018). Parenting in context: Revisiting Belsky's classic process of parenting model in early childhood. Developmental Review, 48, 55–81. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2018.03.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. Oxford: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Vertsberger, D., & Knafo-Noam, A. (2019). Mothers’ and fathers’ parenting and longitudinal associations with children's observed distress to limitations: From pregnancy to toddlerhood. Developmental Psychology, 55, 123–134. doi:10.1037/dev0000622CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wakschlag, L. S., Gordon, R. A., Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Green, S. M., & Leventhal, B. L. (2000). Maternal age at first birth and boys' risk for conduct disorder. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 417–441. doi:10.1207/sjra1004_03CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waller, R., Hyde, L. W., Klump, K. L., & Burt, A. (2018). Parenting is an environmental predictor of callous-unemotional traits and aggression: A monozygotic twin differences study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 57, 955–963. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2018.07.882CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, M. N., Hurtt, C. L., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., & Gardner, F. (2009). Analysis and influence of demographic and risk factors on difficult child behaviors. Prevention Science, 10, 353–365. doi:10.1007/s11121-009-0137-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wittig, S. M. O., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2019). Emerging behavior problems: Bidirectional relations between maternal and paternal parenting styles with infant temperament. Developmental Psychology, 55, 1199–1210. doi:10.1037/dev0000707CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed