Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T04:19:13.918Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Developmental psychopathology and neurobiology of aggression

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 December 2005

JACKIE K. GOLLAN ,
ROYCE LEE  and
EMIL F. COCCARO
JACKIE K. GOLLAN
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
ROYCE LEE
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
EMIL F. COCCARO
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to clarify how neural mechanisms at the molecular level, specifically the serotonergic (5-HT) system and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis system (HPA) in conjunction with early life stress may contribute to the emergence of aggression, self-directed and otherwise, in borderline personality disorder (BPD). Chronic dysregulation of these biological systems, which function to regulate stress and emotion, may potentiate the development of impulsive aggression in borderline personality conditions. Our central premise in this paper is that brain development, stress regulation, and early pathonomic experience are interactive and cumulative in their mutual influence on the development of impulsive aggression in BPD. We review the parameters of impulsive aggression in BPD, followed by a discussion of the neurobiological and neuroendocrine correlates of impulsive aggression with and without BPD. We then focus on the developmental continuities in BPD with attention to brain maturation of 5-HT and HPA axis function during the life span and the influence of early adverse experiences on these systems. Finally, we comment on the data of the relative stability of aggression in BPD, adolescence as a developmental stage of potential vulnerability, and the course of aggressive behavior during the life span.The authors thank Caroline Cozza, Michael McCloskey, and Kurt Knoblett for their comments during the preparation of this manuscript. This research was supported by research funding from the American Foundation of Suicide Prevention (J.K.G.), Grant MH066888-01 (R.L.), and the Borderline Personality Disorder Research Foundation (E.F.C.).

Type
Research Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 17 , Issue 4 , December 2005 , pp. 1151 - 1171
Copyright
© 2005 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychiatric Association. (2001). Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with borderline personality disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 2–52.Google Scholar
Anderson, K. G., Sankis, L. M., & Wigider, T. M. (2001). Pathology versus statistical infrequency: Potential sources of gender bias in personality disorder criteria. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 189, 661–668.Google Scholar
Arnsten, A. F. T., & Shansky, R. M. (2004). Adolescence: Vulnerable period for stress-induced prefrontal cortical function: Introduction to Part IV. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences 2021, 143–147.Google Scholar
Åsberg, M., Traskman, L., & Thoren, P. (1976). 5-HIAA in the cerebrospinal fluid. A biochemical suicide predictor? Archives of General Psychiatry 33, 1193–1197.Google Scholar
Babiker, G., & Herbert, M. (1998). Critical issues in the assessment of child sexual abuse. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 1, 231–252.Google Scholar
Balaban, E., Alper, J. S, & Kasamon, Y. L. (1996). Mean genes and the biology of aggression: A critical review of recent animal and human research. Journal of Neurogenetics 11, 1–43.Google Scholar
Barr, C. S., Newman, T. K., Schwandt, M., Shannon, C., Dvoskin, R. L., Lindell, S. G., et al. (2004). Sexual dichotomy of an interaction between early adversity and the serotonin transporter gene promotor variant in rhesus monkeys. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America 101, 12358–12363.Google Scholar
Barratt, E. S. (1991). Measuring and predicting aggression within the context of a personality theory. Journal of Neuropsychology 3, 535–539.Google Scholar
Barratt, E. S., & Felthous, A. R. (2003). Impulsive versus premeditated aggression: Implications for mens REA decisions. Behavioral Sciences and the Law 21, 619–630.Google Scholar
Barratt, E. S., & Slaughter, L. (1998). Defining, measuring, and predicting impulsive aggression: A heuristic model. Behavioral Science and Law 16, 285–302.Google Scholar
Barratt, E. S., Stanford, M. S., Felthous, A. R., & Kent, T. A. (1997). The effects of phenytoin on impulsive and premeditated aggression: A controlled study. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 17, 341–349.Google Scholar
Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. New York: McGraw–Hill.
Bernstein, D. P., Cohen, P., Velez, C. N., Schwab–Stone, M., Siever, L. J., & Shinsato, L. (1993). Prevalence and stability of the DSM-III-R personality disorders in a community-based survey of adolescents. The American Journal of Psychiatry 150, 1237–1243.Google Scholar
Biegon, A., Grinspoon, A., Blumenfeld, B., Bleich, A., Apter, A., & Mester, R. (1990). Increased serotonin 5-HT2 receptor binding on blood platelets of suicidal men. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 100, 165–167.Google Scholar
Botchin, M. B., Kaplan, J. R., Manuck, S. B., & Mann, J. J. (1993). Low versus high prolactin responders to fenfluramine challenge: Marker of behavioral differences in adult male cynomolgus macaques. Neuropsychopharmacology 9, 93–99.Google Scholar
Brambilla, P., Soloff, P. H., Sala, M., Nicoletti, M. A., Keshavan, M. S., & Soares, J. C. (2004). Anatomical MRI study of borderline personality disorder patients. Psychiatry Research 131, 125–133.Google Scholar
Brown, G. L., Goodwin, F .K., Ballenger, J. C., Goyer, P. F., & Major, L. F. (1979). Aggression in human correlates with cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites. Psychiatry Research 1, 131–139.Google Scholar
Bulik, C. M., Prescott, C. A., & Kendler, K. S. (2001). Features of childhood sexual abuse and the development of psychiatric and substance use disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry 179, 444–449.Google Scholar
Buss, A., & Durkee, A. (1957). An inventory for assessing different kinds of hostility. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 21, 343–349.Google Scholar
Cairns, R. B., & Cairns, B. D. (2000). The natural history and developmental functions of aggression. In A. J. Sameroff, M. Lewis, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (2nd ed.). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.
Cairns, R. B., Cairns, B. D., Neckerman, H. J., Ferguson, L. L., & Gariepy, J. L. (1989). Growth and aggression: 1. Childhood to early adolescence. Developmental Psychology 25, 320–330.Google Scholar
Caldji, C., Diorio, J., & Meaney, M. (2000). Variations in maternal care in infancy regulate the development of stress reactivity. Biological Psychiatry 48, 1164–1174.Google Scholar
Cameron, J. L. (2004). Interrelationships between hormones, behavior and affect during adolescence. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1021, 110–123.Google Scholar
Carpenter, L. L., Tyrka, A. R., McDougle, C. J., Malison, R. T., Owens, M. J., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2004). Cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin-releasing factor and perceived early-life stress in depressed patients and healthy control subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 777–784.Google Scholar
Carrasco, J. L., Diaz–Marsa, M., Ignacio Pastrana, J., Molina, R., Brotons, L., & Horcajadas, C. (2003). Enhanced suppression of cortisol after dexamethasone in borderline personality disorder. A pilot study. Actas Españolas de Psiquiatría 31, 138–141.Google Scholar
Chugani, H. T. (1999). PET scanning studies of human brain development and plasticity. Developmental Neuropsychology 16, 379–381.Google Scholar
Chugani, H. T., Phelps, M. E., & Mazziotta, J. C. (1987). Positron emission tomography study of human brain functional development. Annals of Neurology 22, 487–497.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Cohen, D. (1995). Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theory and methods. New York: Wiley.
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology 8, 597–600.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001). The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning. Development and Psychopathology 13, 783–804.Google Scholar
Coccaro, E. F. (2004). Intermittent explosive disorder and impulsive aggression: The time for serious study is now. Current Psychiatry Reports 6, 1–2.Google Scholar
Coccaro, E. F., & Kavoussi, R. J. (1997). Fluoxetine and impulsive aggressive behavior in personality-disordered subjects. Archives of General Psychiatry 54, 1081–1088.Google Scholar
Coccaro, E. F., Kavoussi, R. J., & Hauger, R. L. (1995). Physiological responses to d-fenfluramine and ipsapirone challenge correlate with indices of aggression in males with personality disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 10, 177–179.Google Scholar
Coccaro, E. F., Kavoussi, R. J., & Hauger, R. D. (1997). Serotonin function and anti-aggressive response to fluoxetine: A pilot study. Journal of Biological Psychiatry 42, 546–552.Google Scholar
Coccaro, E. F., Kavoussi, R. J., Hauger, R. L., Cooper, T. B., & Ferris, C. F. (1998). Cerebrospinal fluid vasopressin levels: Correlates with aggression and serotoninin function in personality-disordered subjects. Archives of General Psychiatry 8, 708–714.Google Scholar
Coccaro, E. F., Schmidt, C. A., Samuels, J. F., & Nestadt, G. (2004). Lifetime and 1-month prevalence rates of intermittent explosive disorder in a community sample. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 65, 820–824.Google Scholar
Cohen, D. J., Paul, R., & Volkmar, F. (1987). Issues in the classification of pervasive developmental disorders and associated conditions. In D. J. Cohen & A. M. Donnelean (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (pp. 20–39). New York: Wiley.
Connell, S., Karikari, C., & Hohman, C. F. (2004). Sex-specific development of cortical monoamine levels in mouse. Developmental Brain Research 151, 187–191.Google Scholar
Coplan, J. D., Smith, E. L., Altemus, M., Scharf, B. A., Owens, M. J., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). Variable foraging demand rearing: Sustained elevations in cisternal cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin-releasing factor concentrations in adult primates. Biological Psychiatry 50, 200–204.Google Scholar
Cornelius, J. R., Soloff, P. H., Perel, J. M., & Ulrich, R. F. (1990). Fluoxetine trial in borderline personality disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 26, 151–154.Google Scholar
Crick, N. R. (1996). The role of overt aggression, relational aggression, and prosocial behavior in the prediction of children's future social adjustment. Child Development 67, 2317–2327.Google Scholar
Crick, N. R., & Bigbee, M. A. (1998). Relational and overt forms of peer victimization: A multi-informant approach. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 66, 337–347.Google Scholar
Cross, H. A., & Harlow, H. P. (1965). Prolonged and progressive effects of partial isolation on the behavior of macaque monkeys. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality 1, 39–49.Google Scholar
Darmani, N. A., Shaddy, J., & Gerdes, C. F. (1996). Differential ontogenesis of three DOI-induced behaviors in mice. Physiology and Behavior 60, 1495–1500.Google Scholar
DeBellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Clark, D. B., Casey, B. J., Giedd, J. N., & Boring, A. M. (1999). A. E. Bennett Research Award. Developmental traumatology. Part II: Brain development. Biological Psychiatry 45, 1271–1284.Google Scholar
Depue, R. A., & Lenzenweger, M. F. (2001). A neurobiological dimensional model. In W. J. Livesley (Ed.), Handbook of personality disorders: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 136–176). New York: Guilford Press.
Donegan, N. H., Sanislow, C. A., Blumberg, H. P., Fullbright, R. K., Lacadie, C., Skudlarski, P., et al. (2003). Amygdala hyperreactivity in borderline personality disorder: Implications for emotional dysregulation. Biological Psychiatry 11, 1284–1293.Google Scholar
Dougherty, D. D., Rauch, S. L., Deckersbach, T., Marci, C., Loh, R., Shin, L. M., et al. (2004). Ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala dysfunction during an anger induction positron emission tomography study in patients with major depressive disorder with anger attacks. Archives of General Psychiatry 61, 795–804.Google Scholar
Driessen, M., Herrmann, J., Stahl, K., Zwaan, M., Meier, S., & Hill, A. (2000). Magnetic resonance imaging volumes of the hippocampus and the amygdala in women with borderline personality disorder and early traumatization. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 1115–1122.Google Scholar
Dubo, E. D., Zanarini, M. C., & Lewis, R. E. (1997). Childhood antecedents of self-destructiveness in borderline personality disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 42, 63–69.Google Scholar
Dulit, R. A., Fyer, M. R., Leon, A. C., Brodsky, B. S., & Frances, A. J. (1994). Clinical correlates of self-mutilation in borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 151, 1305–1311.Google Scholar
Dunn, A. J. (1988). Stress-related activation of cerebral dopaminergic systems. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 537, 188–205.Google Scholar
Francis, D. D., Diorio, J., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (2002). Environmental enrichment reverses the effects of maternal separation on stress reactivity. The Journal of Neuroscience 22, 7840–7843.Google Scholar
Gardner, D. L., & Cowdry, R. W. (1985). Suicidal and parasuicidal behavior in borderline personality disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 8, 389–403.Google Scholar
Gardner, D. L., Lucas, P. B., & Cowdry, R. W. (1990). CSF metabolites in borderline personality disorder compared with normal controls. Biological Psychiatry 28, 247–254.Google Scholar
Garnet, K. E., Levy, K. N., Mattanah, J. J., Edell, W. S., & McGlashan, T. H. (1994). Borderline personality disorder in adolescents: Ubiquitous or specific? American Journal of Psychiatry 151, 1380–1382.Google Scholar
Gerra, G., Zaimovic, A., Avanzini, P., Chittolini, B., Guicastro, G., & Caccavari, R. (1997). Neurotransmitter–neuroendocrine responses to experimentally induced aggression in humans: Influence of personality variable. Psychiatric Research 66, 33–43.Google Scholar
Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Lui, H., & Zijdenbos, A. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Natural Neuroscience 2, 861–863.Google Scholar
Gould, M. S., Velting, D., Kleinman, M., Lucas, C., Graham Thomas, J., & Chung, M. (2004). Teenagers' attitudes about coping strategies and help-seeking behavior for suicidality. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 43, 1124–1133.Google Scholar
Green, A. H. (1978). Self-destructive behavior in battered children. American Journal of Psychiatry 135, 579–582.Google Scholar
Greenberg, M. T., Speltz, M. L., & DeKlyen, M. (1993). The role of attachment in the early development of disruptive behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology 5, 191–213.Google Scholar
Grilo, C. M., Becker, D. F., Fehon, D. C., Walker, M. L., Edell, W. S., & McGlashan, T. H. (1996). Gender differences in personality disorders in psychiatrically hospitalized adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry 153, 1089–1091.Google Scholar
Gross, C., Zhuang, X., Stark, K., Ramboz, S., Oosting, R., Kirby, L., et al. (2002). Serotonin 1A receptor acts during development to establish normal anxiety-like behavior in the adult. Nature 416, 396–400.Google Scholar
Grube, M. (2004). Which types of aggressive behavior are associated with suicidal and self-injurious behavior at the time of admission? Psychopathology 37, 41–49.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R. (2003). Integrating neuroscience and psychological approaches in the study of early experiences. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences 1008, 238–247.Google Scholar
Halasz, J., Liposits, Z., Meelis, W., Kruk, M. R., & Haller, J. (2002). Hypothalamic attack area-mediated activation of the forebrain in aggression. NeuroReport 13, 1267–1270.Google Scholar
Halperin, J. M., Sharma, V., Siever, L. J., Schwartz, S. T., Matier, K., Wornell, G., et al. (1994). Serotonergic function in aggressive and nonaggressive boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 151, 243–248.Google Scholar
Handlesman, L., Holoway, K., Kahn, R. S., Sturiano, C., Rinaldi, P. J., Bernstein, D. P., et al. (1996). Hostility is associated with a low prolactin response to meta-chlorophenylpiperazine in abstinent alcoholics. Alcohol: Clinical Experimental Research 5, 824–829.Google Scholar
Harlow, H. F., & Harlow, M. K. (1971). Psychopathology in monkeys. In H. D. Kimmel (Eds.), Experimental psychopathology: Recent research and theory (pp. 203–229). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Heim, C., Newport, D. J., Bonsall, R., Miller, A. H., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). Altered pituitary–adrenal axis responses to provocative challenge tests in adult survivors of childhood abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 575–581.Google Scholar
Herpertz, S. C., Dietrich, T. M., Wenning, B., Krings, T., Erberich, S. G., Willmes, K., et al. (2001). Evidence of abnormal amygdala functioning in borderline personality disorder: A functional MRI study. Biological Psychiatry 50, 292–298.Google Scholar
Higley, J. D., Mehlman, P. T., Taub, D. M., Higley, S. B., Suomi, S. J., Vickers, J. H., et al. (1992). Cerebrospinal fluid monoamine and adrenal correlates of aggression in free-ranging rhesus monkeys. Archives of General Psychiatry 49, 436–441.Google Scholar
Huttenlocher, P. R. (1984). Synapse elimination and plasticity in developing human cerebral cortex. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 88, 488–496.Google Scholar
Johnson, H., Halit, H., Grice, S., & Karmiloff–Smith, A. (2002). Neuroimaging of typical and atypical development: A perspective from multiple levels of analysis. Development and Psychopathology 14, 521–536.Google Scholar
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Skodol, A. E., Oldham, J. M., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (1999). Personality disorders in adolescence and risk of major mental disorders and suicidality during adulthood. From a community based longitudinal study of 717 youths. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 805–811.Google Scholar
Karkanias, G. B., Li, C. S., & Etgen, A. M. (1997). Estradiol reduction of alpha-2-adrenoceptor binding in female rat cortex is correlated with decreases in alpha2A/D-adrenoceptor messenger RNA. Neuroscience 81, 593–597.Google Scholar
Kasen, S., Cohen, P., Skodol, A. E., Johnson, J. G., Smailes, E., & Brook, J. S. (2001). Childhood depression and adult personality disorder. Alternative pathways of continuity. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 231–236.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Perel, J., Dahl, R. E., Moreci, P., Nelson, B., et al. (1997). The corticotropin-releasing hormone challenge in depressed abused, depressed non-abused, and normal control children. Biological Psychiatry 42, 669–679.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., & Charney, D. S. (1999). Neurobiological correlates of child abuse. Biological Psychiatry 45, 1235–1236.Google Scholar
Kernberg, P. F. (1982). Update of borderline disorders in children. Psychiatric Hospital 13, 137–141.Google Scholar
Kingston, L., & Prior, M. (1995). The development of patterns of stable, transient, and school-age aggressive behavior in young children. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 34, 348–358.Google Scholar
Kraemer, G. W., Schmidt, D. E., & Ebert, M. H. (1997). The behavioral neurobiology of self-injurious behavior in rhesus monkeys: Current concepts and relations to impulsive behavior in humans. In D. M. Stoff & M. J. John (Eds.), The neurobiology of suicide: From the bench to the clinic. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (vol. 836, pp. 12–38). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
Kruk, M. R., Halasz, J., Meelis, W., & Haller, J. (2004). Fast positive feedback between the adrenocortical stress response and a brain mechanism involved in aggressive behavior. Behavioral Neuroscience 118, 1062–1070.Google Scholar
Ladd, C. O., Huot, R. L., Thrivikraman, K. V., Nemeroff, C. B., Meaney, M. J., & Plotsky, P. M. (2000). Long-term behavioral and neuroendocrine adaptations to adverse early experience. Progress in Brain Research 122, 81–103.Google Scholar
Lee, R. J., Geracioti, T. D., Kasckow, J. W., & Coccaro, E. F. (2005). Childhood trauma and personality disorder: Positive correlation with adult cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin releasing factor concentrations. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 995–997.Google Scholar
Lenzenweger, M. F., Clarkin, J. F., Fertuck, E. A., & Kernberg, O. F. (2004). Executive neurocognitive functioning and neurobehavioral systems indicators in borderline personality disorder: A preliminary study. Journal of Personality Disorders 18, 421–438.Google Scholar
Lenzenweger, M. F., Johnson, M. D., & Willett, J. B. (2004). Individual growth curve analysis illuminates stability and change in personality disorder features: The longitudinal study of personality disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 61, 1015–1024.Google Scholar
Lenzenweger, M. F., Loranger, A. W., Korfine, L., & Neff, C. (1997). Detecting personality disorders in a nonclinical population. Application of a 2-stage procedure for case identification. Archives of General Psychiatry 54, 345–351.Google Scholar
Lewis, D. A., Cruz, D., Eggan, S., & Erickson, S. (2004). Postnatal development of prefrontal inhibitory circuits and the pathophysiology of cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 1021, 64–76.Google Scholar
Leyton, M., Okazawa, H., Diksic, M., Paris, J., Rosa, P., & Mzengeza, S. (2001). Brain Regional alpha-[11C]methyl-l-tryptophan trapping in impulsive subjects with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 775–782.Google Scholar
Lieb, K., Zanarini, M. C., Schmahl, C., Linehan, M. M., & Bohus, M. (2004). Borderline personality disorder, Lancet 364, 453–461.Google Scholar
Lincoln, A. J., Bloom, D., Katz, M., & Boksenbaum, N. (1998). Neuropsychological and neurophysiological indices of auditory processing impairment in children with multiple complex developmental disorder. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 37, 100–112.Google Scholar
Links, P. S., Heslegrave, R., & Vanreekum, R. (1998). Prospective follow-up study of borderline personality disorder: Prognosis, prediction of outcome, and axis II comorbidity. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 43, 365–370.Google Scholar
Linnoila, V. M., & Virkkunen, M. (1992). Aggression, suicidality, and serotonin. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 53, 46–51.Google Scholar
Lipschitz, D. S., Winegar, R. K., Nicolaou, A., Hartnick, E., Wolfson, M., & Southwick, S. M. (1999). Perceived abuse and neglect as risk factors for suicidal behavior in adolescent inpatients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 187, 32–39.Google Scholar
Liu, D., Caldji, C., Sharma, S., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (2000). Influence of neonatal rearing conditions on stress-induced adrenocorticotropin responses and norepinephrine release in the hypothalamix paraventicular nucleas. Journal of Neuroendocrinology 12, 5–12.Google Scholar
Loeber, R., & Hay, D. (1997). Key issues in the development of aggression and violence form childhood to early adulthood. Annual Review of Psychology 48, 371–410.Google Scholar
Lofgren, D. P., Bemporad, J., King, J., Lindem, K., & O'Driscoll, G. (1991). A prospective follow-up study of so-called borderline children. American Journal of Psychiatry 48, 1541–1547.Google Scholar
Lopez, N. L., Vazquez, D. M., & Olson, S. L. (2004). An integrative approach to the neurophysiological substrates of social withdrawal and aggression. Development and Psychopathology 16, 69–93.Google Scholar
Lopez–Ibor, J. J., Saiz–Ruiz, J., & Perez de los Cobos, J. C. (1985). Biological correlates of suicide and aggressivity in major depressions (with melancholia). Neuropsychobiology 14, 67–74.Google Scholar
Low, G., Jones, D., MacLeod, A., Power, M., & Duggan, C. (2000). Childhood trauma, dissociation, and self-harming behaviour: A pilot study. British Journal of Medical Psychology 73, 269–278.Google Scholar
Luna, B., & Sweeney, J. A. (2004). The emergence of collaborative brain function: fMRI studies of the development of response inhibition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1021, 296–309.Google Scholar
Lyoo, I. K., Han, M. H., & Cho, D. Y. (1998). A brain MRI study in subjects with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders 50, 235–243.Google Scholar
Mann, J. J., Brent, D. A., & Arango, V. (2001). The neurobiology and genetics of suicide and attempted suicide: A focus on the serotonergic system. Neuropsychopharmacology 24, 467–477.Google Scholar
Mann, J. J., Waternaux, C., Haas, G. L., & Malone, K. M. (1999). Toward a clinical model of suicidal behavior in psychiatric patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 181–189.Google Scholar
Matsuzawa, J., Matsui, M., Konishi, T., Noguchi, K., Gur, R. C., Bilker, W., et al. (2001). Age-related volumetric changes of brain gray and white matter in healthy infants and children. Cerebral Cortex 11, 335–342.Google Scholar
McBride, P. A., Tierney, H., DeMeo, M., Chen, J. S., & Mann, J. J. (1990). Effects of age and gender on CNS serotonergic responsivity in normal adults. Biological Psychiatry 27, 1143–1155.Google Scholar
McBurnett, K., Lahey, B. B., Rathouz, P. J., & Loeber, R. (2000). Low salivary cortisol and persistent aggression in boys referred for disruptive behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 38–43.Google Scholar
Meaney, M. J., Diorio, J., Francis, D., Widdowson, J., LaPlante, P., Caldji, C., et al. (1996). Early environmental regulation of forebrain glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: Implications for adrenocortical responses to stress. Developmental Neuroscience 18, 49–72.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review 100, 674–701.Google Scholar
Molcho, A., Stanley, B., & Stanley, M. (1991). Biological studies and markers in suicide and attempted suicide. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 6, 77–92.Google Scholar
Moss, H. B., Yao, J. K., & Panzak, G. L. (1990). Serotonergic responsivity and behavioral dimensions in antisocial personality disorder with substance abuse. Biological Psychiatry 28, 325–338.Google Scholar
Mueller, R. A., Rothermel, R. D., Behen, M. E., Muzik, O., Chakraborty, P. K., & Chugani, H. T. (1997). Plasticity of motor organization in children and adults. NeuroReport 8, 3103–3108.Google Scholar
New, A. S., Buchsbaum, M. S., Hazlett, E. A., Goodman, M., Koenigsberg, H. W., Lo, J., et al. (2004). Fluoxetine increases relative metabolic rate in prefrontal cortex in impulsive aggression. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 176, 451–458.Google Scholar
New, A. S., Trestman, R. l., Mitropoulou, V., Benishay, D. S., Coccaro, E., Silverman, J., et al. (1997). Serotonergic function and self-injurious behavior in personality disorder patients. Psychiatry Research 69, 17–26.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (2003). Response inhibition and disruptive behaviors: Toward a multiprocess conception of etiological heterogeneity for ADHD combined type and conduct disorder early-onset type. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1008, 149–159.Google Scholar
Nordstrom, P., & Åsberg, M. (1992). Suicide risk and serotonin. International Clinical Psychopharmacology 6, 12–21.Google Scholar
Novak, M. A. (2003). Self-injurious behavior in rhesus monkeys: New insights into its etiology, physiology, and treatment. American Journal of Primatology 59, 3–19.Google Scholar
O'Keane, V., Loloney, E., O'Neil, H., O'Connor, A., Smith, C., & Dinam, T. B. (1992). Blunted prolactin responses to d-fenfluramine challenge I sociopathy: Evidence for subsensitivity of central serotonergic function. British Journal of Psychiatry 160, 643–646.Google Scholar
Ogawa, J. R., Sroufe, L. A., Weinfeld, N. S., Carlson, E. A., & Egeland, B. (1997). Development and the fragmented self: Longitudinal study of dissociative symptomatology in a nonclinical sample. Development and Psychopathology 9, 855–879.Google Scholar
Pandey, G. N., Pandey, S. C., Dwivedi, Y., Sharma, R. P., Janicak, P. G., & Davis, J. M. (1995). Platelet serotonin-2A receptors: A potential biological marker for suicidal behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 850–855.Google Scholar
Paris, J., Zelkowitz, P., Gudzer, J., Joseph, S., & Feldman, R. (1999). Neuropsychological factors associated with borderline pathology in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38, 770–774.Google Scholar
Pattison, M. E., & Kahan, J. (1983). The deliberate self-harm syndrome. American Journal of Psychiatry 140, 867–872.Google Scholar
Patton, J. H., Stanford, M. S., & Barratt, E. S. (1995). Factor structure of the Barratt impulsiveness scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology 51, 768–774.Google Scholar
Pavic, L., Gregurek, R., Petrovic, R., Petrovic, D., Varda, R., Vukusic, H., et al. (2003). Alterations in brain activation in posttraumatic stress disorder patients with severe hyperarousal symptoms and impulsive aggressiveness. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 253, 80–83.Google Scholar
Pereira, M. E., & Fairbanks, L. A. (1993). What are juvenile primates all about? In M. E. Pereira & L. A. Fairbanks (Eds.), Juvenile primates (pp. 3–12, 367–415). New York: Oxford University Press.
Petitto, J. M., Quade, D., & Evans, D. L. (1992). Relationship of object loss during development to hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis function during major affective illness later in life. Psychiatry Research 44, 227–236.Google Scholar
Pine, D. S., Wasserman, G., Coplan, J. D., Fried, J. A., Huang, Y., Kassir, S., et al. (1996). Platelet 5-HT2A characteristics and rearing factors in boys at risk for delinquency: A preliminary report. American Journal of Psychiatry 153, 538–544.Google Scholar
Pine, F. (1986). On the development of the “borderline-child-to-be.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 56, 450–457.Google Scholar
Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (1993). Early postnatal experience alters hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) mRNA, median eminence CRF content and stress-induced release in adult rats. Brain Research. Molecular Brain Research 18, 195–200.Google Scholar
Rakic, P., Bourgeois, J. P., & Goldman–Rakic, P. S. (1994). Synaptic development of the cerebral cortex: Implications for learning, memory, and mental illness. In J. Van Pelt, M. A. Corner, H. B. M. Uylings, & F. H. Lopes da Silva (Eds.), Progress in brain research, The self-organizing brain: From growth cones to functional networks (pp. 227–243). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Rhoades, R. W., Bennett–Clarke, C. A., Chiaia, N. L., White, F. A., McDonald, G. J., Haring, J. H., et al. (1990). Development and lesion induced reorganization of the cortical representation of the rat's body surface as revealed by immunocytochemistry for serotonin. Journal of Comprehensive Neurology 293, 190–207.Google Scholar
Rinnes, T., De Kloet, E. R., Wouters, L., Goekoop, J. G., DeRijk, R. H., & Van den Brink, W. (2002). Hyperresponsiveness of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis to combined dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone challenge in female borderline personality disorder subjects with a history of sustained child abuse. Biological Psychiatry 52, 1102–1112.Google Scholar
Rusch, N., Tebartz van Elst, L., Ludaescher, P., Wilke, M., Huppertz, H. J., Thiel, T., et al. (2003). A voxel-based morphometric MRI study in female patients with borderline personality disorder. Neruoimage 20, 385–392.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Graham, P., Chadwick, O. F. D., & Yule, W. (1976). Adolescent turmoil: Fact or fiction? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 16, 35–56.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Petersen, A. C., Compas, B. E., Brooks–Gunn, J., Stemmler, M., Ey, S., & Grant, K. E. (1993). Depression in adolescence. American Psychologist 48, 155–168.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., & Sroufe, L. A. (2000). Developmental psychopathology: Concepts and challenges. Developmental Psychopathology 12, 265–296.Google Scholar
Schaffer, C. B., Carroll, J., & Ambramowitz, S. I. (1982). Self-mutilation and the borderline personality. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 170, 468–473.Google Scholar
Schmahl, C. G., McGlashan, T. H., & Bremner, J. D. (2002). Neurobiological correlates of borderline personality disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 36, 69–87.Google Scholar
Shearer, S. L. (1994). Phenomenology of self-injury among inpatient women with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 182, 524–526.Google Scholar
Sibille, E., Pavlides, C., Benke, D., & Toth, M. (2000). Genetic inactivation of the Serotonin(1A) receptor in mice results in downregulation of major GABA(A) receptor alpha subunits, reduction of GABA(A) receptor binding, and benzodiazepine-resistant anxiety. Journal of Neuroscience 20, 2758–2765.Google Scholar
Siever, L. J., Buchsbaum, M. S., New, A. S., Spiegel–Cohen, J., Wei, T., Hazlett, E. A., et al. (1999). d,l-Fenfluramine response in impulsive personality disorder assessed with [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Neuropsychopharmacology 20, 413–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siklich, L., Hickock, J. M., & Todd, R. D. (1990). 5-HT1A receptors control neurite branching during development. Development and Brain Research 56, 269–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simeon, D., & Favazza, A. R. (2001). Self-injurious behaviors: Phenomenology and assessment. In D. Simeon & E. Hollander (Eds.), Self-injurious behaviors: Assessment and treatment (pp. 1–28). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Simeon, D., Stanley, B., Frances, A., Mann, J. J., Winchel, R., & Stanley, M. (1992). Self-mutilation in personality disorders: Psychological and biological correlates. American Journal of Psychiatry 149, 221–226.Google Scholar
Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., Pfohl, B., Widiger, T. A., Livesley, W. J., & Siever, L. J. (2002). The borderline diagnosis I: Psychopathology, comorbidity, and personality structure. Biological Psychiatry 51, 936–950.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skodol, A. E., Stout, R. L., McGlashan, T. H., Grilo, C. M., Gunderson, J. G., Shea, M. T., et al. (1999). Co-occurrence of mood and personality disorders: A report from the collaborative longitudinal personality disorders study. Depression and Anxiety 10, 175–182.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soloff, P. H., Lynch, K. G., Kelly, T. M., Malone, K. M., & Mann, J. J. (2000). Characteristics of suicide attempts of patients with major depressive episode and borderline personality disorder: A comparative study. American Journal of Psychiatry 15, 601–608.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soloff, P. H., Lynch, K. G., & Moss, H. B. (2000). Serotonin, impulsivity, and alcohol use disorders in the older adolescent: A psychobiological study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 24, 1609–1619.Google Scholar
Spear, L. P. (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 24, 417–463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1990). Considering normal and abnormal together: The essence of developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology 2, 335–347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (1999). One social world: The integrated development of parent–child and peer relationships. In W. A. Collins & B. Laursen (Eds.), Relationships as developmental context: The 30th Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Stein, D., Trestman, R. L., & Mitropoulou, V. (1996). Impulsivity and serotonergic function in compulsive personality disorder. Journal of Neuropsychiatry Clinical Neuroscience 8, 393–398.Google Scholar
Steinberg, L. R., Dahl, D., Keating, D., & Masten, A. S. (2004). The study of developmental psychopathology in adolescence: Integrating affective neuroscience with the study of context. In D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
Stevenson, J., Meares, R., & Comerford, A. (2003). Diminished impulsivity in older patients with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 165–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suominen, K. H., Isometsa, E. T., Henriksson, M. M., Ostamo, A. I., & Lonnqvist, J. K. (2000). Suicide attempts and personality disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 102, 118–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swartz, M., Blazer, D., George, L., & Winfield, I. (1990). Estimating the prevalence of borderline personality disorder in the community. Journal of Personality Disorders 4, 257–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tebartz van Elst, L., Hesslinger, B., Thiel, T., Geiger, E., Haegele, K., Lemieux, L., et al. (2003). Frontolimbic brain abnormalities in patients with borderline personality disorder: A volumetric magnetic resonance imaging study. Biological Psychiatry 54, 163–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torgersen, S., Kringlen, E., & Cramer, V. (2001). The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 590–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Towbin, K. E., Dykens, E. M., Pearson, G. S., & Cohen, D. J. (1993). Conceptualizing “borderline syndrome of childhood” and “childhood schizophrenia” as a developmental disorder. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 32, 775–782.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veenema, A. H., Meijer, O. C., de Kloet, E. R., & Koolhaas, J. M. (2003). Genetic selection for coping style predicts stressor susceptibility. Journal of Neuroendocrinology 15, 256–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verney, C., Berger, B., Adrien, J., Vigny, A., & Gay, M. (1982). Development of the dopaminergic innervation of the rat cerebral cortex. A light microscopic immunocytochemical study using anti-tyrosine hydroxylase antibodies. Developmental Brain Research 5, 41–52.Google Scholar
Vythilingam, M., Heim, C., Newport, J., Miller, A. H., Anderson, E., Bronen, R., et al. (2002). Childhood trauma associated with smaller hippocampal volume in women with major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 2072–2080.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiederman, M. W., Sansone, R. A., & Sansone, L. A. (1999). Bodily self-harm and its relationship to childhood abuse among women in a primary care setting. Violence Against Women 5, 155–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Windle, R. C., & Windle, M. (1995). Longitudinal patterns of physical aggression: Associations with adult social, psychiatric, and personality functioning and testosterone levels. Development and Psychopathology 7, 563–585.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yates, T. (2004). The developmental psychopathology of self-injurious behavior: Compensatory regulation in posttraumatic adaptation. Clinical Psychology Review 24, 35–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yehuda, R., Halligan, S., & Grossman, R. (2001). Childhood trauma and risk for PTSD: Relationship to intergenerational effects of trauma, parental PTSD and cortisol excretion. Stress and Development 13, 731–751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yen, S., Shea, M. T., Sanislow, C. A., Grilo, C. M., Skodol, A. E., & Gunderson, J. G. (2004). Borderline personality disorder criteria associated with prospectively observed suicidal behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 1296–1298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Vujanovic, A. A., Hennen, J., Reich, D. B., & Silk, K. R. (2004). Axis II comorbidity of borderline personality disorder: Description of 6-year course and prediction time-to-remission. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1, 1–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zweig–Frank, H., & Paris, J. (2002). Predictors of outcome in a 27-year follow-up of patients with borderline personality disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry 43, 103–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar