Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T03:04:24.180Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Developmental programming of shyness: A longitudinal, prospective study across four decades

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 April 2019

Kristie L. Poole ,
Saroj Saigal ,
Ryan J. Van Lieshout  and
Louis A. Schmidt
Kristie L. Poole*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Saroj Saigal
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Ryan J. Van Lieshout
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Louis A. Schmidt
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
*
Author for correspondence: Kristie L. Poole, McMaster University, Room 130, Psychology Building, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although shyness is a ubiquitous phenomenon with early developmental origins, little research has examined the influence of prenatal exposures on the developmental trajectory of shyness. Here, we examined trajectories of shyness from childhood to adulthood in three groups (N = 254), with varying degrees of prenatal adversity as indicated by the number of stressful exposures: extremely low birth weight (ELBW; <1000 g) survivors prenatally exposed to exogenous corticosteroids (ELBW+S, n = 56); ELBW survivors not prenatally exposed to exogenous corticosteroids (ELBW+NS, n = 56); and normal birth weight (NBW, n = 142) controls. Multilevel modeling revealed that the ELBW+S individuals exhibited the highest levels of childhood shyness, which remained stable into adulthood. The ELBW+NS and NBW controls had comparably low levels of childhood shyness; however, the ELBW+NS individuals experienced patterns of increasing shyness, while NBW controls displayed decreases in shyness into adulthood. We speculate that individuals exposed to multiple prenatal stressors (i.e., ELBW+S) may be developmentally programmed to be more sensitive to detecting social threat, with one manifestation being early developing, stable shyness, while increasing shyness among ELBW+NS individuals may reflect a later developing shyness influenced by postnatal context. We discuss the implications of these findings for understanding the developmental origins and developmental course of human shyness from childhood through adulthood.

Keywords

longitudinal studiespersonalityprematurityprenatal programmingshyness
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 32 , Issue 2 , May 2020 , pp. 455 - 464
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1997). Manual for the young adult self-report and young adult behavior checklist. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. (1983). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and revised Child Behavior Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Allin, M., Rooney, M., Cuddy, M., Wyatt, J., Walshe, M., Rifkin, L., & Murray, R. (2006). Personality in young adults who are born preterm. Pediatrics, 117, 309–316. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-0539CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bateson, P., Gluckman, P., & Hanson, M. (2014). The biology of developmental plasticity and the Predictive Adaptive Response hypothesis. Journal of Physiology, 592, 2357–2368. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2014.271460CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beaton, E. A., Schmidt, L. A., Schulkin, J., Antony, M. M., Swinson, R. P., & Hall, G. B. (2008). Different neural responses to stranger and personally familiar faces in shy and bold adults. Behavioral Neuroscience, 122, 704–709. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.122.3.704CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benediktsson, R., Lindsay, R. S., Noble, J., Seckl, J. R., & Edwards, C. R. (1993). Glucocorticoid exposure in utero: New model for adult hypertension. Lancet, 341, 339–341. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)90138-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biesanz, J. C., West, S. G., & Kwok, O. M. (2003). Personality over time: Methodological approaches to the study of short-term and long-term development and change. Journal of Personality, 71, 905–941. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7106002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bock, J., Rether, K., Gröger, N., Xie, L., & Braun, K. (2014). Perinatal programming of emotional brain circuits: An integrative view from systems to molecules. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 1–16. doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bögels, S., Stevens, J., & Majdandžić, M. (2011). Parenting and social anxiety: Fathers’ versus mothers’ influence on their children's anxiety in ambiguous social situations. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 599–606. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02345.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolten, M., Nast, I., Skrundz, M., Stadler, C., Hellhammer, D. H., & Meinlschmidt, G. (2013). Prenatal programming of emotion regulation: Neonatal reactivity as a differential susceptibility factor moderating the outcome of prenatal cortisol levels. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 75, 351–357. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2013.04.014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Booth-LaForce, C., & Oxford, M. L. (2008). Trajectories of social withdrawal from grades 1 to 6: Prediction from early parenting, attachment, and temperament. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1298–1313. doi:10.1037/a0012954CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyle, M. H., Offord, D. R., Hofmann, H. G., Catlin, G. P., Byles, J. A., Cadman, D. T., … Szatmari, P. (1987). Ontario Child Health Study: I. Methodology. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 826–831. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800210078012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Roberts, B. W., & Shiner, R. L. (2005). Personality development: Stability and change. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 453–484. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141913CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheek, J. M. (1983). The revised Cheek and Buss shyness scale. Unpublished manuscript, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA.Google Scholar
Cheek, J. M., & Buss, A. H. (1981). Shyness and sociability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 330–338. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.41.2.330CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheek, J. M., Carpentieri, A. M., Smith, T. G., Rierdan, J., & Koff, E. (1986) Adolescent shyness. In Jones, W. H., Cheek, J. M., & Briggs, S. R. (Eds.), Shyness: Emotions, personality, and psychotherapy (pp. 105–115). Boston: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheek, J. M., & Krasnoperova, E. N. (1999). Varieties of shyness in adolescence and adulthood. In Schmidt, L. A. & Schulkin, J. (Eds.), Extreme fear, shyness and social phobia: Origins, biological mechanisms, and clinical outcomes (pp. 224–250). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clauss, J. A., & Blackford, J. U. (2012). Behavioral inhibition and risk for developing social anxiety disorder: A meta-analytic study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 51, 1066–1075. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.08.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colonnesi, C., Napoleone, E., & Bögels, S. M. (2014). Positive and negative expressions of shyness in toddlers: Are they related to anxiety in the same way? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106, 624–637. doi:10.1037/a0035561CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coplan, R. J., Arbeau, K. A., & Armer, M. (2008). Don't fret, be supportive! Maternal characteristics linking child shyness to psychosocial and school adjustment in kindergarten. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 359–371. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9183-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahl, L. B., Kaaresen, P. I., Tunby, J., Handegård, B. H., Kvernmo, S., & Rønning, J. A. (2006). Emotional, behavioral, social, and academic outcomes in adolescents born with very low birth weight. Pediatrics, 118, e449–e459. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-3024CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, E. P., Glynn, L. M., Schetter, C. D., Hobel, C., Chicz-Demet, A., & Sandman, C. A. (2007). Prenatal exposure to maternal depression and cortisol influences infant temperament. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 737–746. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e318047b775CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, E. P., Townsend, E. L., Gunnar, M. R., Georgieff, M. K., Guiang, S. F., Ciffuentes, R. F., & Lussky, R. C. (2004). Effects of prenatal betamethasone exposure on regulation of stress physiology in healthy premature infants. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 1028–1036. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2003.10.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, E. P., Waffarn, F., & Sandman, C. A. (2011). Prenatal treatment with glucocorticoids sensitizes the HPA axis response to stress among full-term infants. Developmental Psychobiology, 53, 175–183. doi:10.1002/dev.20510CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Day, K. L., Van Lieshout, R. J., Vaillancourt, T., & Schmidt, L. A. (2015). Peer victimization in survivors of premature birth and low birth weight: Review and recommendations. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 25, 259–265. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.09.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2010). The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1562–1592. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Piero, L. B., Saxbe, D. E., & Margolin, G. (2016). Basic emotion processing and the adolescent brain: Task demands, analytic approaches, and trajectories of changes. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 174–189. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2016.03.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeLucia, C., & Pitts, S. C. (2005). Applications of individual growth curve modeling for pediatric psychology research. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31, 1002–1023. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsj074CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennissen, J. J., Asendorpf, J. B., & Van Aken, M. A. (2008). Childhood personality predicts long-term trajectories of shyness and aggressiveness in the context of demographic transitions in emerging adulthood. Journal of Personality, 76, 67–100. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00480.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Weerth, C., van Hees, Y., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2003). Prenatal maternal cortisol levels and infant behavior during the first 5 months. Early Human Development, 74, 139–151. doi:10.1016/S0378-3782(03)00088-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerson, P. A., Lally, B. E., Gunnel, E., Birkle, D. L., & Salm, A. K. (2005). Early emergence of increased fearful behavior in prenatally stressed rats. Physiology & Behavior, 86, 586–593. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.08.025CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DiPietro, J. A., Hodgson, D. M., Costigan, K. A., & Johnson, T. R. B. (1996). Fetal antecedents of infant temperament. Child Development, 67, 2568–2583. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01875.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duckworth, R. A. (2015). Neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying behavioral stability: Implications for the evolutionary origin of personality. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1360, 54–74. doi:10.1111/nyas.12797CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erni, K., Shaqiri, L., La Marca, R., Zimmermann, R., & Ehlert, U. (2012). Psychobiological effects of prenatal glucocorticoid exposure in 10-year-old children. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 3, 1–10. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00104CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eryigit-Madzwamuse, S., Strauss, V., Baumann, N., Bartmann, P., & Wolke, D. (2015). Personality of adults who were born very preterm. Archives of Disease in Childhood—Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 100, 524–529. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2014-308007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garcia-Coll, C., Kagan, J., & Reznick, J. S. (1984). Behavioral inhibition in young children. Child Development, 55, 1005–1019. doi:10.2307/1130152CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gartstein, M. A., & Skinner, M. K. (2017). Prenatal influences on temperament development: The role of environmental epigenetics. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 1269–1303.Google Scholar
Gazelle, H., & Ladd, G. W. (2003). Anxious solitude and peer exclusion: A diathesis–stress model of internalizing trajectories in childhood. Child Development, 74, 257–278. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00534CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Buklijas, T. (2010). A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 1, 6–18. doi:10.1017/S2040174409990171CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., & Pinal, C. (2005). The developmental origins of adult disease. Maternal & Child Nutrition, 1, 130–141. doi:10.1111/j.1740-8709.2005.00020.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hack, M., Youngstrom, E. A., Cartar, L., Schluchter, M., Taylor, H. G., Flannery, D., … Borawski, E. (2004). Behavioral outcomes and evidence of psychopathology among very low birth weight infants at age 20 years. Pediatrics, 114, 932–940. doi:10.1542/peds.2003-1017-LCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, A., & Seckl, J. (2011). Glucocorticoids, prenatal stress and the programming of disease. Hormones and Behavior, 59, 279–289. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.06.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hastings, P. D., Nuselovici, J. N., Rubin, K. H., & Cheah, C. S. L. (2010). Shyness, parenting, and parent-child relationships. In Rubin, K. H. & Coplan, R. J. (Eds.), The development of shyness and social withdrawal (pp. 107–130). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hertz, C. L., Mathiasen, R., Hansen, B. M., Mortensen, E. L., & Greisen, G. (2013). Personality in adults who were born very preterm. PLOS ONE, c8, e66881. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066881CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hollingshead, A. B. (1969). Two-Factor Index of Social Position [mimeograph]. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Hoy, E. A., Sykes, D. H., Bill, J. M., Halliday, H. L., McClure, B. G., & Reid, M. C. (1992). The social competence of very-low-birthweight children: Teacher, peer, and self-perceptions. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 20, 123–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Indredavik, M. S., Vik, T., Heyerdahl, S., Romundstad, P., & Brubakk, A. M. (2005). Low-birthweight adolescents: Quality of life and parent–child relations. Acta Paediatrica, 94, 1295–1302. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2005.tb02091.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaekel, J., Wolke, D., & Chernova, J. (2012). Mother and child behaviour in very preterm and term dyads at 6 and 8 years. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 54, 716–723. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012.04323.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., Snidman, N. (1987). The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children. Child Development, 58, 1459–1473. doi:10.2307/1130685CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., & Snidman, N. (1988). Biological bases of childhood shyness. Science, 240, 167–171. doi:10.1126/science.3353713CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karevold, E., Ystrom, E., Coplan, R. J., Sanson, A. V., & Mathiesen, K. S. (2012). A prospective longitudinal study of shyness from infancy to adolescence: Stability, age-related changes, and prediction of socio-emotional functioning. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 1167–1177. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9635-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krzeczkowski, J. E., Schmidt, L. A., Savoy, C., Saigal, S., & Van Lieshout, R. J. (2018). Frontal EEG asymmetry in extremely low birth weight adult survivors: Links to antenatal corticosteroid exposure and psychopathology. Clinical Neurophysiology, 129, 1891–1898. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2018.05.023CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krzeczkowski, J. E., & Van Lieshout, R. J. (2018). Prenatal influences on the development and stability of personality. New Ideas in Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2018.01.003Google Scholar
Lahti, J., Raiikkonen, K., Heinonen, K., Pesonen, A. K., Kajantie, E., Forsen, T., … Ericksson, J. G. (2008). Body size at birth and socio-economic status in childhood: Implications for Cloninger's psychobiological model of temperament at age 60. Psychiatry Research, 160, 167–174. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2007.07.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieb, R., Wittchen, H. U., Höfler, M., Fuetsch, M., Stein, M. B., & Merikangas, K. R. (2000). Parental psychopathology, parenting styles, and the risk of social phobia in offspring: A prospective-longitudinal community study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 859–866. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.9.859CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LoBue, V., & Pérez-Edgar, K. (2014). Sensitivity to social and non-social threats in temperamentally shy children at-risk for anxiety. Developmental Science, 17, 239–247. doi:10.1111/desc.12110CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathewson, K. J., Chow, C. H., Dobson, K. G., Pope, E. I., Schmidt, L. A., & Van Lieshout, R. J. (2017). Mental health of extremely low birth weight survivors: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 143, 347–383. doi:10.1037/bul0000091CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S., Bowles, N. P., Gray, J. D., Hill, M. N., Hunter, R. G., Karatsoreos, I. N., & Nasca, C. (2015). Mechanisms of stress in the brain. Nature Neuroscience, 18, 1353–1363. doi:10.1038/nn.4086CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melchior, L. A., & Cheek, J. M. (1990). Shyness and anxious self-preoccupation during a social interaction. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 117–130.Google Scholar
Moisiadis, V. G., & Matthews, S. G. (2014). Glucocorticoids and fetal programming: Part 2. Mechanisms. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 10, 403–411. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2014.74CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neyer, F. J., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2001). Personality–relationship transaction in young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1190–1204. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.1190CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oh, W., Rubin, K. H., Bowker, J. C., Booth-LaForce, C., Rose-Krasnor, L., & Laursen, B. (2008). Trajectories of social withdrawal from middle childhood to early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 553–566. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9199-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perez-Edgar, K., Bar-Haim, Y., McDermott, J. M., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2010). Attention biases to threat and behavioral inhibition in early childhood shape adolescent social withdrawal. Emotion, 10, 349–357. doi:10.1037/a0018486CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perez-Edgar, K., Reeb-Sutherland, B. C., McDermott, J. M., White, L. K., Henderson, H. A., Degnan, K. A., … Fox, N. A. (2011). Attention biases to threat link behavioral inhibition to social withdrawal over time in very young children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 885–895. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9495-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pesonen, A. K., Räikkönen, K., Heinonen, K., Andersson, S., Hovi, P., Järvenpää, A. L., … Kajantie, E. (2008). Personality of young adults born prematurely: The Helsinki study of very low birth weight adults. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 609–617. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01874.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pesonen, A. K., Räikkönen, K., Kajantie, E., Heinonen, K., Strandberg, T. E., & Järvenpää, A. L. (2006). Fetal programming of temperamental negative affectivity among children born healthy at term. Developmental Psychobiology, 48, 633–643. doi:10.1002/dev.20153CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pesonen, A. K., Räikkönen, K., Lano, A., Peltoniemi, O., Hallman, M., & Kari, M. A. (2009). Antenatal betamethasone and fetal growth in prematurely born children: Implications for temperament traits at the age of 2 years. Pediatrics, 123, e31–e37. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-1809CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poole, K. L., & Schmidt, L. A. (2018). Trajectory of heart period to socio-affective threat in shy children. Developmental Psychobiology, 60, 999–1008. doi:10.1002/dev.21774CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poole, K. L., & Schmidt, L. A. (2019). Smiling through the shyness: The adaptive function of positive affect in shy children. Emotion, 19, 160–170. doi:10.1037/emo0000426CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poole, K. L., Tang, A., & Schmidt, L. A. (2018). The temperamentally shy child as the social adult: An exemplar of multifinality. In Perez-Edgar, K. & Fox, N. A. (Eds.), Behavioral inhibition: Integrating theory, research, and clinical perspectives (pp. 185–217). London: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poole, K. L., Van Lieshout, R. J., McHolm, A. E., Cunningham, C. E., & Schmidt, L. A. (2018). Trajectories of social anxiety in children: Influence of child cortisol reactivity and parental social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46, 1309–1319. doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0385-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pyhälä, R., Räikkönen, K., Pesonen, A. K., Heinonen, K., Hovi, P., Eriksson, J. G., … Kajantie, E. (2009). Behavioral inhibition and behavioral approach in young adults with very low birth weight—The Helsinki study of very low birth weight adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 106–110. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 1–25. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, R. W., Fraley, R. C., Roberts, B. W., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). A longitudinal study of personality change in young adulthood. Journal of Personality, 69, 617–640.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, G., Lipper, E. G., & Auld, P. A. (1990). Social competence and behavior problems in premature children at school age. Pediatrics, 86, 391–397. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.694157Google ScholarPubMed
Rubin, K. H., Bowker, J., & Gazelle, H. (2010). Social withdrawal in childhood and adolescence: Peer relationships and social competence. In Rubin, K. H. & Coplan, R. J. (Eds.), The development of shyness and social withdrawal (pp. 131–156). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Saigal, S., Day, K. L., Van Lieshout, R. J., Schmidt, L. A., Morrison, K. M., & Boyle, M. H. (2016). Health, wealth, social integration, and sexuality of extremely low-birth-weight prematurely born adults in the fourth decade of life. JAMA Pediatrics, 170, 678–686. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.0289CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Savoy, C., Ferro, M. A., Schmidt, L. A., Saigal, S., & Van Lieshout, R. J. (2016). Prenatal betamethasone exposure and psychopathology risk in extremely low birth weight survivors in the third and fourth decades of life. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 74, 278–285. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.09.021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, L. A. (1999). Frontal brain electrical activity in shyness and sociability. Psychological Science, 10, 316–320. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00161CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, L. A., & Fox, N. A. (1994). Patterns of cortical electrophysiology and autonomic activity in adults' shyness and sociability. Biological Psychology, 38, 183–198. doi:10.1016/0301-0511(94)90038-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Rubin, K. H., Sternberg, E. M., Gold, P. W., Smith, C. C., & Schulkin, J. (1997). Behavioral and neuroendocrine responses in shy children. Developmental Psychobiology, 30, 127–140. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199703)30:2<127::AID-DEV4>3.0.CO;2-S3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Schulkin, J., & Gold, P. W. (1999). Behavioral and psychophysiological correlates of self-presentation in temperamentally shy children. Developmental Psychobiology, 35, 119–135. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199909)35:2<119::AID-DEV5>3.0.CO;2-G3.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, L. A., Miskovic, V., Boyle, M. H., & Saigal, S. (2008). Shyness and timidity in young adults who were born at extremely low birth weight. Pediatrics, 122, 181–187. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-3747CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, L. A., Miskovic, V., Boyle, M., & Saigal, S. (2010). Frontal electroencephalogram asymmetry, salivary cortisol, and internalizing behavior problems in young adults who were born at extremely low birth weight. Child Development, 81, 183–199. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01388.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, L. A., Polak, C. P., & Spooner, A. L. (2005). Biological and environmental contributions to childhood shyness: A diathesis-stress model. In Crozier, W. R. & Alden, L. E. (Eds.), The essential handbook of social anxiety for clinicians (pp. 33–55). London: Wiley.Google Scholar
Schmidt, L. A., & Poole, K. L. (2018). On the bifurcation of temperamental shyness: Development, adaptation, and neoteny. New Ideas in Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2018.04.003Google Scholar
Schneider, M. L. (1992). Prenatal stress exposure alters postnatal behavioral expression under conditions of novelty challenge in rhesus monkey infants. Developmental Psychobiology, 25, 529–540. doi:10.1002/dev.420250706CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, M. L., Coe, C. L., & Lubach, G. R. (1992). Endocrine activation mimics the adverse effects of prenatal stress on the neuromotor development of the infant primate. Developmental Psychobiology, 25, 427–439. doi:10.1002/dev.420250604CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, A. K., Rhee, S. H., Corley, R. P., Friedman, N. P., Hewitt, J. K., & Robinson, J. L. (2012). The magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on parental and observational measures of behavioral inhibition and shyness in toddlerhood. Behavior Genetics, 42, 764–777. doi:10.1007/s10519-012-9551-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevenson-Hinde, J. (2002). Shyness: Ethological, temperament and attachment perspectives. In Zuckerman, B. S., Lieberman, A. F., & Fox, N. A. (Eds.), Emotional regulation and developmental health: Infancy and early childhood (pp. 125–138). Washington, DC: Pediatric Round Table, Johnson & Johnson Pediatric Institute.Google Scholar
Taber, K. S. (2018). The use of Cronbach's alpha when developing and reporting research instruments in science education. Research in Science Education, 48, 1273–1296. doi:10.1007/s11165-016-9602-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tang, A., Beaton, E. A., Tatham, E., Schulkin, J., Hall, G. B., & Schmidt, L. A. (2016). Processing of different types of social threat in shyness: Preliminary findings of distinct functional neural connectivity. Social Neuroscience, 11, 15–37. doi:10.1080/17470919.2015.1030036CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tang, A., Van Lieshout, R. J., Lahat, A., Duku, E., Boyle, M. H., Saigal, S., & Schmidt, L. A. (2017). Shyness trajectories across the first four decades predict mental health outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45, 1621–1633. doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0265-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tessier, R., Nadeau, L., & Boivin, M. (1997). The social behaviour of 11- to 12-year-old children born as low birthweight and or premature infants. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 21, 795–812. doi:10.1080/016502597384677CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trautman, P. D., Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F., Postelnek, J., & New, M. I. (1995). Effects of early prenatal dexamethasone on the cognitive and behavioral development of young children: Results of a pilot study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 20, 439–449. doi:10.1016/0306-4530(94)00070-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Den Bergh, B. R. (2011). Developmental programming of early brain and behaviour development and mental health: A conceptual framework. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 53, 19–23. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04057.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van den Hove, D. L. A., Blanco, C. E., Aendekerk, B., Desbonnet, L., Bruschettini, M., Steinbusch, H. P., … Steinbusch, H. W. M. (2005). Prenatal restraint stress and long-term affective consequences. Developmental Neuroscience, 27, 313–320. doi:10.1159/000086711CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Lieshout, R. J., Boyle, M. H., Saigal, S., Morrison, K., & Schmidt, L. A. (2015). Mental health of extremely low birth weight survivors in their 30s. Pediatrics, 135, 452–459. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-3143CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waffarn, F., & Davis, E. P. (2012). Effects of antenatal corticosteroids on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis of the fetus and newborn: Experimental findings and clinical considerations. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 207, 446–454. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2012.06.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waxman, J., Van Lieshout, R. J., Saigal, S., Boyle, M. H., & Schmidt, L. A. (2013). Still cautious: Personality characteristics of extremely low birth weight adults in their early 30s. Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 967–971. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.08.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1974). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Revised. New York: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Weinstock, M. (2005). The potential influence of maternal stress hormones on development and mental health of the offspring. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 19, 296–308. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2004.09.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welberg, L. A., & Seckl, J. R. (2001). Prenatal stress, glucocorticoids and the programming of the brain. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 13, 113–128. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2001.00601.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Werner, E. A., Myers, M. M., Fifer, W. P., Cheng, B., Fang, Y., Allen, R., & Monk, C. (2007). Prenatal predictors of infant temperament. Developmental Psychobiology, 49, 474–484. doi:10.1002/dev.20232CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westenberg, M. P., Drewes, M. J., Goedhart, A. W., Siebelink, B. M., & Treffers, P. D. (2004). A developmental analysis of self-reported fears in late childhood through mid-adolescence: Social-evaluative fears on the rise? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 481–495. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00239.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wightman, A., Schluchter, M., Drotar, D., Andreias, L., Taylor, H. G., & Klein, N., … Hack, M. (2007). Parental protection of extremely low birth weight children at age 8 years. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 28, 317–326. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e3180330915CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xu, R., Poole, K. L., Van Lieshout, R. J., Saigal, S., & Schmidt, L. A. (2018). Shyness and sociability among extremely low birth weight survivors in the 3rd and 4th decades: Associations with relationship status. Journal of Personality. doi:10.1111/jopy.12385Google Scholar