Hostname: page-component-5f56664f6-92sl5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-05-07T07:10:18.867Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Childhood antecedents of personality disorder: An alternative perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 July 2009

Thomas A. Widiger ,
Barbara De Clercq  and
Filip De Fruyt
Thomas A. Widiger*
Affiliation:
University of Kentucky
Barbara De Clercq
Affiliation:
Ghent University
Filip De Fruyt
Affiliation:
Ghent University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Thomas A. Widiger, Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, 115 Kastle Hall, Lexington, KY 40506-0044; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

One of the fundamental limitations of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) categorical model of personality disorder classification has been the lack of a strong scientific foundation, including an understanding of childhood antecedents. The DSM-IV-TR personality disorders, however, do appear to be well understood as maladaptive variants of the domains and facets of the general personality structure as conceptualized within the five-factor model (FFM). Integrating the classification of personality disorder with the FFM brings to an understanding of the personality disorders a considerable body of scientific research on childhood antecedents. The temperaments and traits of childhood do appear to be antecedent to the FFM of adult personality structure, and these temperament and traits of childhood and adolescence are the likely antecedents for adult personality disorder, providing further support for the conceptualization of the adult personality disorders as maladaptive variants of the domains and facets of the FFM. Conceptualizing personality disorders in terms of the FFM thereby provides a basis for integrating the classification of abnormal and normal personality functioning across the life span.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 21 , Issue 3: Precursors and Diverse Pathways to Personality Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Part 1 , August 2009 , pp. 771 - 791
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Allik, J. (2005). Personality dimensions across cultures. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 212–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.).Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.).Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Andreasen, N. C. (1995). The validation of psychiatric diagnoses. New models and approaches. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 161–162.Google ScholarPubMed
Ansell, E. B., & Grilo, C. M. (2007). Personality disorders. In Hersen, M., Turner, S. M., & Beidel, D. C. (Eds.), Adult psychopathology and diagnosis (5th ed., pp. 633–678). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2001). A theoretical basis for the major dimensions of personality. European Journal of Personality, 15, 327–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernstein, D. P., Cohen, P., Velez, C. N., Shwab-Stone, M., Siever, L. J., & Shinsato, L. (1993). Prevalence and stability of the DSM-III-R personality disorders in a community-based survey of adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1237–1243.Google Scholar
Blackburn, R. (2007). Personality disorder and antisocial deviance: Comments on the debate on the structure of the Psychopathy Checklist—Revised. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 142–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blashfield, R. K., & Intoccia, V. (2000). Growth of the literature on the topic of personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 472–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In Collins, W. A. (Ed.), Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 39–101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bouchard, T. J., & Loehlin, J. C. (2001). Genes, evolution, and personality. Behavior Genetics, 31, 243–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burke, J. D. (2007). Antisocial personality disorder. In Freeman, A. & Reinecke, M. A. (Eds.), Personality disorders in childhood and adolescence (pp. 429–494). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1975). A temperament theory of personality development. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Buyst, V., De Fruyt, F., & Mervielde, I. (1994). Parental descriptions of children's personality: A five-factor model classification. Psychologica Belgica, 34, 231–255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camisa, K. M., Bockbrader, M. A., Lysaker, P., Rae, L. L., Brenner, C. A., & O'Donnell, B. F. (2005). Personality traits in schizophrenia and related personality disorders. Psychiatry Research, 133, 23–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A. (2000). The child is father of the man: Personality continuities from childhood to adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 158–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Roberts, B. W., & Shiner, R. L. (2005). Personality development: Stability and change. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 453–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., & Shiner, R. L. (2006). Personality development. In Lerner, R. M., Eisenberg, N., & Damon, W. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 300–365). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., & Silva, P. A. (1995). Temperamental qualities at age 3 predict personality traits in young adulthood: Longitudinal evidence from a birth cohort. Child Development, 66, 486–498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1996). Temperament: Theory and practice. New York: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Church, A. T. (2001). Personality measurement in cross-cultural perspective. Journal of Personality, 69, 979–1006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, L. A. (2007). Assessment and diagnosis of personality disorder. Perennial issues and an emerging reconceptualization. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 227–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleckley, H. (1941). The mask of sanity. St. Louis, MO: C. V. Mosby.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R. (2000). A practical way to diagnose personality disorder: A proposal. Journal of Personality Disorders, 14, 98–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cloninger, C. R. (2005). Genetics. In Oldham, J. M., Skodol, A. E., & Bender, D. S. (Eds.), The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders (pp. 143–154). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.).Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cohen, P. (1986). The Quality of Life Interview. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute.Google Scholar
Cohen, P. (2008). Child development and personality disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 31, 477–493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, P., & Crawford, T. N. (2005). Developmental issues. In Bender, D. S, Oldham, J. M., & Skodol, A. E. (Eds.), The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders (pp. 171–185). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Cohen, P., Crawford, T. N., Johnson, J. G., & Kasen, S. (2005). The Children in the Community study of developmental course of personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 466–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Costello, A., Edelbrock, C., Dulcan, M., & Kalas, R. (1984). Testing of the NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC) in a clinical population: Final report to the Center for Epidemiologic Studies, National Institute of Mental Health. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281–302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Clercq, B., & De Fruyt, F. (2003). Personality disorder symptoms in adolescence: A five-factor model perspective. Journal of Personality Disorders, 17, 269–292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Clercq, B., & De Fruyt, F. (2007). Childhood antecedents of personality disorder. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20, 57–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Clercq, B., De Fruyt, F., Van Leeuwen, K., & Mervielde, I. (2006). The structure of maladaptive personality traits in childhood: A first step toward an integrative developmental perspective for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 639–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Fruyt, F., Bartels, M., Van Leeuwen, K. G., De Clerg, B., Decuyper, M., & Mervielde, I. (2006). Five types of personality continuity in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 538–553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Fruyt, F., Mervielde, I., Hoekstra, H. A., & Rolland, J.-P. (2000). Assessing adolescents' personality with the NEO-PI-R. Assessment, 7, 329–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1997). Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 633–652.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Digman, J., & Inouye, J. (1986). Further specification of the five robust factors of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 116–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Digman, J. M. (1989). Five robust trait dimensions: Development, stability and utility. Journal of Personality, 57, 195–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Digman, J. M., & Shmelyov, A. G. (1996). The structure of temperament and personality in Russian children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 341–351.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Digman, J. M., & Takemoto-Chock, N. K. (1981). Factors in the natural-language of personality—Reanalysis, comparison, and interpretation of 6 major studies. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 16, 149–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
First, M. B., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (1997). User's guide for the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II personality disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Frances, A. J., First, M. B., & Pincus, H. A. (1995). DSM-IV guidebook. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Freeman, A., & Reinecke, M. A. (Eds.). (2007). Personality disorders in childhood and adolescence. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Marsee, M. A. (2006). Psychopathy and developmental pathways to antisocial behavior in youth. In Patrick, C. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 353–374). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Glenn, A. L., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (2007). Early temperamental and psychophysiological precursors of adult psychopathic personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 508–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The structure of phenotypic personality traits. American Psychologist, 48, 26–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, L. R. (2001). Analyses of Digman's child-personality data: Derivation of big-five factor scores from each of six samples. Journal of Personality, 69, 709–743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldsmith, H. H., & Campos, J. J. (1982). Toward a theory of infant temperament. In Emde, R. N. & Harmon, R. J. (Eds.), The development of attachment and affiliative systems (pp. 161–193). New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guze, S. B., & Helzer, J. E. (1987). The medical model and psychiatric disorders. In Michels, R. & Cavenar, J. (Eds.), Psychiatry (Vol. 1, Chap. 51, pp. 1–8). Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott.Google Scholar
Halverson, C. F., Kohnstamm, G. A., & Martin, R. P. (Eds.). (1994). The developing structure of temperament and personality from infancy to adulthood. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2008). Psychopathy as a clinical and empirical construct. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 217–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Havill, V. L., Allen, K., Halverson, C. F., & Kohnstamm, G. A. (1994). Parents' use of Big Five categories in their natural language descriptions of children. In Halverson, C. F., Kohnstamm, G. A., & Martin, R. P. (Eds.), The developing structure of temperament and personality from infancy to adulthood (pp. 371–386). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Helzer, J. E., Kraemer, H. C., Krueger, R. F., Wittchen, H.-U., Sirovatka, P. J., & Regier, D. A. (Eds.). (2008). Dimensional approaches in diagnostic classification. Refining the research agenda for DSM-V. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Jang, K. L., Vernon, P. A., & Livesley, W. J. (2001). Behavioural–genetic perspectives on personality function. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 46, 234–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
John, O. P., Caspi, A., Robins, R. W., Moffitt, T. E., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1994). The “little five”: Exploring the nomological network of the five-factor model of personality in adolescent boys. Child Development, 65, 160–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. G., McGeoch, P. G., Caskey, V. P., Abhary, S. G., Sneed, J. R., & Bornstein, R. F. (2005). The developmental psychopathology of personality disorders. In Hankin, B. L. & Abela, J. R. Z. (Eds.), Development of psychopathology. A vulnerability–stress perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Kendell, R. E. (1983). DSM-III: A major advance in psychiatric nosology. In Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., & Skodol, A. E. (Eds.), International perspectives on DSM-III (pp. 55–68). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Kendell, R., & Jablensky, A. (2003). Distinguishing between the validity and utility of psychiatric diagnoses. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 4–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S. (1980). The nosologic validity of paranoia (simple delusional disorder). Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 699–706.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S. (1990). Toward a scientific psychiatric nosology: Strengths and limitations. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 969–973.Google Scholar
Klein, R. G., Tancer, N. K., & Werry, J. S. (1997). Anxiety disorders of childhood or adolescence. In Widiger, T. A., Frances, A. J., Pincus, H. A., Ross, R., First, M. B., & Davis, W. (Eds.), DSM-IV sourcebook (Vol. 3, pp. 221–239). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Klerman, G. L. (1983). The significance of DSM-III in American psychiatry. In. Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., & Skodol, A. E. (Eds.), International perspectives on DSM-III (pp. 3–26). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Kogan, L. S., Smith, J., & Jenkins, S. (1977). Ecological validity of indicator data as predictors of survey findings. Journal of Social Service Research, 1, 117–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohnstamm, G. A., Halverson, C. F. Jr., Mervielde, I., & Havill, V. L. (Eds.). (1998). Parental descriptions of child personality: Developmental antecedents of the Big Five? Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krueger, R. F., Markon, K. E., Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). Externalizing psychopathology in adulthood: A dimensional-spectrum conceptualization and its implications for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 537–550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kupfer, D. J., First, M. B., & Regier, D. A. (Eds.). (2002). Introduction. In Kupfer, D. J., First, M. B., & Regier, D. A. (Eds.), A research agenda for DSM-V (pp. xv–xxiii). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2004). Psychometric properties of the HEXACO Personality Inventory. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 329–358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leve, L. D., Kim, H. K., & Pears, K. C. (2005). Childhood temperament and family environment as predictors of internalizing and externalizing trajectories from ages 5 to 17. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 505–520.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livesley, W. J. (2001). Conceptual and taxonomic issues. In Livesley, W. J. (Ed.), Handbook of personality disorders. Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 3–38). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Livesley, W. J. (2003). Diagnostic dilemmas in classifying personality disorder. In Phillips, K. A., First, M. B., & Pincus, H. A. (Eds.), Advancing DSM. Dilemmas in psychiatric diagnosis (pp. 153–190). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Livesley, W. J. (2005). Behavioral and molecular genetic contributions to a dimensional classification of personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 131–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynam, D. R., & Widiger, T. A. (2001). Using the five-factor model to represent the DSM-IV personality disorders: An expert consensus approach. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 401–412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynam, D. R., & Widiger, T. A. (2007). Using a general model of personality to identify the basic elements of psychopathy. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 160–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGuffin, P., & Thapar, A. (1992). The genetics of personality disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 12–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mervielde, I., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2000). Variable-centered and person-centered approaches to childhood personality. In Hampson, S. E. (Ed.), Advances in personality psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 37–76). Philadelphia, PA: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Mervielde, I., Buyst, V., & De Fruyt, F. (1995). The validity of the Big-5 as a model for teacher ratings of individual differences among children aged 4–12 years. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 525–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mervielde, I., De Clercq, B., De Fruyt, F., & Van Leeuwen, K. (2005). Temperament, personality and developmental psychopathology as childhood antecedents of personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 171–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mervielde, I., & De Fruyt, F. (1999). Construction of the Hierarchical Personality Inventory for Children (HiPIC). In Mervielde, I., Deary, I., De Fruyt, F., & Ostendorf, F. (Eds.), Personality psychology in Europe (Vol. 7, pp. 107–127). Tilburg, The Netherlands: Tilburg University Press.Google Scholar
Mervielde, I., & De Fruyt, F. (2002). Assessing children's traits with the Hierarchical Personality Inventory for Children. In De Raad, B. & Perugini, M. (Eds.), Big five assessment (pp. 129–146). Seattle, WA: Hogrefe & Huber.Google Scholar
Miller, J. D., & Lynam, D. R. (2003). Psychopathy and the five-factor model of personality: A replication and extension. Journal of Personality Assessment, 81, 168–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mullins-Sweatt, S. N., Jamerson, J. E., Samuel, D. B., Olson, D. R., & Widiger, T. A. (2006). Psychometric properties of an abbreviated instrument of the five-factor model. Assessment, 13, 119–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munafo, M. R., Clark, T., & Flint, J. (2005a). Does measurement instrument moderate the association between the serotonin transporter gene and anxiety-related personality traits? A meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 415–419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munafo, M. R., Clark, T., & Flint, J. (2005b). Promise and pitfalls in the meta-analysis of genetic association studies: A response to Sen and Schinka. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 895–897.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munafo, M. R., Clark, T. G., Moore, L. R., Payne, E., Walton, R., & Flint, J. (2003). Genetic polymorphisms and personality in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 8, 471–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigg, J. T., & Goldsmith, H. H. (1994). Genetics of personality disorders: Perspectives from personality and psychopathology research. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 346–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Connor, B. P. (2002). A quantitative review of the comprehensiveness of the five-factor model in relation to popular personality inventories. Assessment, 9, 188–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Connor, B. P. (2005). A search for consensus on the dimensional structure of personality disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 323–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paris, J. (2007). Temperament and personality disorders in childhood and adolescence. In Freeman, A. & Reinecke, M. A. (Eds.), Personality disorders in childhood and adolescence (pp. 55–73). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Pine, D. S., Alegria, M., Cook, E. H., Costello, E. J., Dahl, R. E., Koretz, D., et al. (2002). Advances in developmental science and DSM-V. In Kupfer, D. J., First, M. B., & Regier, D. E. (Eds.), A research agenda for DSM-V (pp. 85–122). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Regier, D. A. (2008). Forward: Dimensional approaches to psychiatric classification. In Helzer, J. E., Kraemer, H. C., Krueger, R. F., Wittchen, H. -U., Sirovatka, P. J., & Regier, D. A. (Eds.), Dimensional approaches to diagnostic classification. Refining the research agenda for DSM-V (pp. xvii–xxiii). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Roberts, B. W., & DelVecchio, W. F. (2000). The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 3–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, E., & Guze, S. B. (1970). Establishment of diagnostic validity in psychiatric illness: Its application to schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 126, 107–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, L. N. (1978). Sturdy childhood predictors of adult outcomes: replication from longitudinal studies. Psychological Medicine, 8, 611–622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, S. R., Lutz, C. J., & Bailey, S. E. (2002). Positive and negative symptoms of schizotypy and the five-factor model: A domain and facet level analysis. Journal of Personality Assessment, 79, 53–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In Damon, W., Lerner, R., & Eisenberg, N. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 99–166). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rounsaville, B. J., Alarcon, R. D., Andrews, G., Jackson, J. S., Kendell, R. E., & Kendler, K. (2002). Basic nomenclature issues for DSM-V. In Kupfer, D. J., First, M. B., & Regier, D. E. (Eds.), A research agenda for DSM-V (pp. 1–29). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Samuel, D. B., & Widiger, T. A. (2004). Clinicians' descriptions of prototypic personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 18, 286–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samuel, D. B., & Widiger, T. A. (2008). A meta-analytic review of the relationships between the five-factor model and DSM-IV-TR personality disorders: A facet level analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 1326–1342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saulsman, L. M., & Page, A. C. (2004). The five-factor model and personality disorder empirical literature: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 1055–1085.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schinka, J. A. (2005). Measurement scale does moderate the association between the serotonin transporter gene and trait anxiety: Comments on Munafo et al. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 892–893.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schinka, J. A., Busch, R. M., & Robichaux-Keene, N. (2004). A meta-analysis of the association between the serotonin transporter gene polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and trait anxiety. Molecular Psychiatry, 9, 197–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schotte, C. K. W., De Doncker, D., Vankerckhoven, C., Vertommen, H., & Cosyns, P. (1998). Self-report assessment of the DSM-IV personality disorders. Measurement of trait and distress characteristics: The ADP-IV. Psychological Medicine, 28, 1179–1188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Segerstrom, S. (2000). Personality and the immune system: models, methods, and mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 22, 180–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sen, S., Burmeister, M., & Ghosh, D. (2004). Meta-analysis of the association between a serotonin transporter polymorphism (5-HTT-LPR) and anxiety-related personality traits. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B, 127B, 85–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaffer, D., Widiger, T. A., & Pincus, H. A. (1998). DSM-IV child disorders, part II: Final overview. In Widiger, T. A., Frances, A. J., PIncus, H. A., Ross, R., First, M. B., Davis, W., & Kline, M. (Eds.), DSM-IV sourcebook (Vol. 4, pp. 963–977). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Shiner, R. L. (1998). How shall we speak of children's personalities in middle childhood? A preliminary taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 308–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shiner, R. L. (2006). Commentary on Mervielde et al.: Toward a developmental perspective on personality disorders. In Widiger, T. A., Simonsen, E., Sirovatka, P. J., & Regier, D. A. (Eds.), Dimensional models of personality disorders: Refining the research agenda for DSM-V (pp. 111–116). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Shiner, R. L. (2007). Personality disorders. In Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.), Assessment of childhood disorders (4th ed., pp. 781–816). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Shiner, R. L., Masten, A. S., & Roberts, J. M. (2003). Childhood personality foreshadows adult personality and life outcomes two decades later. Journal of Personality, 71, 1145–1170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., Shea, M. T., McGlashan, T. H., Morey, L. C., Sanislow, C. A., et al. (2005). The Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study (CLPS): Overview and implications. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 487–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., Endicott, J., & Robins, E. (1978). Research diagnostic criteria: Rationale and reliability. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 773–782.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., & Skodol, A. E. (1980). DSM-III: The major achievements and an overview. American Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 151–164.Google ScholarPubMed
Stoff, D. M., Breiling, J., & Maser, J. D. (Eds.). (1997). Handbook of antisocial behaviour. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Tackett, J. L., Silberschmidt, A. L., Krueger, R. F., & Sponheim, S. R. (2008). A dimensional model of personality disorder: Incorporating DSM Cluster A characteristics. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 454–459.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tellegen, A., & Waller, N. G. (1987). Exploring personality through test construction: Development of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Trull, T. J., & Durrett, C. A. (2005). Categorical and dimensional models of personality disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 355–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trull, T. J., Widiger, T. A., Lynam, D. R., & Costa, P. T. (2003). Borderline personality disorder from the perspective of general personality functioning. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 193–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Lieshout, C. F. M., & Haselager, G. J. T. (1994). The Big Five personality factors in Q-sort descriptions of children and adolescents. In Halverson, C. F. Jr., Kohnstamm, G. A., & Martin, R. P. (Eds.), The developing structure of temperament and personality from infancy to adulthood (pp. 293–318). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Watson, D. (2005). Rethinking the mood and anxiety disorders: A quantitative hierarchical model for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 522–536.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Chmielewski, M. (2008). Structures of personality and their relevance to psychopathology: II. Further articulation of a comprehensive unified trait structure. Journal of Personality, 76, 1545–1585.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westen, D. (1997). Divergences between clinical and research methods for assessing personality disorders: Implications for research and the evolution of Axis II. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 895–903.Google ScholarPubMed
Widiger, T. A. (2001). Social anxiety, social phobia, and avoidant personality disorder. In Corzier, W. R. & Alden, L. (Eds.), International handbook of social anxiety (pp. 335–356). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Widiger, T. A., & Boyd, S. (in press). Personality disorder assessment instruments. In Butcher, J. N. (Ed.), Oxford handbook of personality assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Widiger, T. A., & Clark, L. A. (2000). Toward DSM-V and the classification of psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 946–963.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widiger, T. A., & Costa, P. T. (2002). Five factor model personality disorder research. In Costa, P. T. & Widiger, T. A. (Eds.), Personality disorders and the five factor model of personality (2nd ed., pp. 59–87). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widiger, T. A., Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (2002). A proposal for Axis II: Diagnosing personality disorders using the five factor model. In Costa, P. T. & Widiger, T. A. (Eds.), Personality disorders and the five factor model of personality (2nd ed., pp. 431–456). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widiger, T. A., & Edmundson, M. (in press). Diagnoses, dimensions, and DSM-V. In Barlow, D. (Ed.), Oxford handbook of clinical psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Widiger, T. A., & Mullins-Sweatt, S. (2009). Five-factor model of personality disorder: A proposal for DSM-V. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 115–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widiger, T. A., & Samuel, D. B. (2005). Evidence based assessment of personality disorders. Psychological Assessment, 17, 278–287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widiger, T. A., & Simonsen, E. (2005). Alternative dimensional models of personality disorder: Finding a common ground. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 110–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widiger, T. A., Simonsen, E., Krueger, R. F., Livesley, W. J., & Verheul, R. (2005). Personality disorder research agenda for the DSM-V. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 317–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widiger, T. A., & Trull, T. J. (2007). Plate tectonics in the classification of personality disorder: Shifting to a dimensional model. American Psychologist, 62, 71–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, D., Gosling, S. D., & Potter, J. (2007). Normality evaluations and their relation to personality traits and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 861–879.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yamagata, S., Suzuki, A., Ando, J., One, Y., Kijima, N., Yoshimura, K., et al. (2006). Is the genetic structure of human personality universal? A cross-cultural twin study from North America, Europe, and Asia. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 987–998.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zoccolillo, M., Pickles, A., Quinton, D., & Rutter, M. (1992). The outcome of childhood conduct disorder: Implications for defining adult personality disorder and conduct disorder. Psychological Medicine, 22, 971–986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed