Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T06:51:26.844Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Childhood and adolescent resiliency, regulation, and executive functioning in relation to adolescent problems and competence in a high-risk sample

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 April 2007

MICHELLE M. MARTEL ,
JOEL T. NIGG ,
MARIA M. WONG ,
HIRAM E. FITZGERALD ,
JENNIFER M. JESTER ,
LEON I. PUTTLER ,
JENNIFER M. GLASS ,
KENNETH M. ADAMS  and
ROBERT A. ZUCKER
MICHELLE M. MARTEL
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
JOEL T. NIGG
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
MARIA M. WONG
Affiliation:
University of Michigan
HIRAM E. FITZGERALD
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
JENNIFER M. JESTER
Affiliation:
University of Michigan
LEON I. PUTTLER
Affiliation:
University of Michigan
JENNIFER M. GLASS
Affiliation:
University of Michigan
KENNETH M. ADAMS
Affiliation:
University of Michigan
ROBERT A. ZUCKER
Affiliation:
University of Michigan
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study first examined the respective relations of resiliency and reactive control with executive functioning. It then examined the relationship of these different domains to the development of academic and social outcomes, and to the emergence of internalizing and externalizing problem behavior in adolescence. Resiliency and reactive control were assessed from preschool to adolescence in a high-risk sample of boys and girls (n = 498) and then linked to component operations of neuropsychological executive functioning (i.e., response inhibition, interference control, fluency, working memory/set-shifting, planning, and alertness), assessed in early and late adolescence. Consistent, linear relations were found between resiliency and executive functions (average r = .17). A curvilinear relationship was observed between reactive control and resiliency, such that resiliency was weaker when reactive control was either very high or very low. In multivariate, multilevel models, executive functions contributed to academic competence, whereas resiliency and interference control jointly predicted social competence. Low resiliency, low reactive control, and poor response inhibition uniquely and additively predicted internalizing problem behavior, whereas low reactive control and poor response inhibition uniquely predicted externalizing problem behavior. Results are discussed in relation to recent trait models of regulation and the scaffolded development of competence and problems in childhood and adolescence.This work was supported by NIAAA Grant R01-AA12217 to Robert Zucker and Joel Nigg, NIAAA Grant R37-AA07065 to Robert Zucker and Hiram Fitzgerald, and NIMH Grant R01-MH59105 to Joel Nigg. We are indebted to the families and staff who made the study possible.

Type
Research Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 19 , Issue 2 , April 2007 , pp. 541 - 563
Copyright
© 2007 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.
Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., & Howell, C. T. (1987). Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications for cross informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 213–232.Google Scholar
Akaike, H. (1973). Information theory as an extension of the maximum likelihood principle. In B. N. Petrov & F. Csaki (Eds.), Second International Symposium on Information Theory. Budapest: Akademiai Kiado.
Alexander, G. E., DeLong, M. R., & Strick, P. L. (1986). Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 9, 357–381.Google Scholar
Aron, A. R., Fletcher, P. C., Bullmore, E. T., Sahakian, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2003). Stop signal inhibition disrupted by damage to right inferior frontal gyrus in humans. Nature Neuroscience, 6, 115–116.Google Scholar
Band, G. P., van der Molen, M. W., & Logan, G. D. (2003). Horse-race model simulations of the stop signal procedure. Acta Psychologica, 112, 105–142.Google Scholar
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94.Google Scholar
Benes, F. M. (2002). Is the GABA cell a final common pathway for the etiology and treatment of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder? Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 15, 277–278.Google Scholar
Benton, A. L., & Hamsher, K. deS. (1978). Multilingual Aphasia Examination—Revised manual. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa.
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In W. A. Collins (Ed.), Development of cognition, affect, and social relations: The Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 39–101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychological Review, 108, 624–652.Google Scholar
Cabeza, R., & Nyberg, L. (1997). Imaging cognition: An empirical review of PET studies with normal subjects. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 1–26.Google Scholar
Calkins, S. D., & Fox, N. A. (2002). Self-regulatory processes in early personality development: A multilevel approach to the study of childhood social withdrawal and aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 477–498.Google Scholar
Casey, B. J., Trainor, R. J., Orendi, J. L., Schubert, A. B., Nystrom, L. E., Gieddd, J. N., et al. (1997). A developmental functional MRI study of prefrontal activation during performance of the Go–No-Go task. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 9, 835–847.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Block, J., Block, J. H., Klopp, B., Lynam, D., Moffitt, T. E., et al. (1992). A “common-language” version of the California Q-Set for personality assessment. Psychological Assessment, 4, 512–523.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Roberts, B. W., & Shiner, R. L. (2005). Personality development: Stability and change. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 453–484.Google Scholar
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Courtney, S., Petit, L., Maisog, J., Ungerleider, L. G., & Haxby, J. (1998). An area specialized for spatial working memory in the human frontal cortex. Science, 279, 1347–1349.Google Scholar
Edelbrock, C., Rende, R., Plomin, R., & Thompson, L. A. (1995). A twin study of competence and problem behavior in childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 36, 775–785.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Reiser, M., et al. (2001). The relations of regulation and emotionality to children's externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. Child Development, 72(4), 1112–1134.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., Maszk, P., Holmgren, R., et al. (1996). The relations of regulation and emotionality to problem behavior in elementary school children. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 141–162.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, F. A., Guthrie, I. K., & Reiser, M. (2000). Dispositional emotionality and regulation: Their role in predicting quality of social functioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 136–157.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Guthrie, I. K., Fabes, R. A., Reiser, M., Murphy, B. C., Holgren, R., et al. (1997). The relations of regulation and emotionality to resiliency and competent social functioning in elementary school children. Child Development, 68, 295–311.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Guthrie, I. K., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S., Losoya, S., Murphy, B. C., et al. (2000). Prediction of elementary school children's externalizing problem behaviors from attentional and behavioral regulation and negative emotionality. Child Development, 71, 1367–1382.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Reiser, M., Cumberland, A., Shepard, S. A., et al. (2004). The relations of effortful control and impulsivity to children's resiliency and adjustment. Child Development, 75, 25–46.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., Fabes, R. A., Smith, C. L., Reiser, M., Shepard, S. A., et al. (2003). The relations of effortful control and ego-control to children's resiliency and social functioning. Developmental Psychology, 39, 761–776.Google Scholar
Eysenck, H. (1947). Dimensions of personality. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, & Co.
Feighner, J. P., Robins, E., Guze, S. B., Woodruff, R. A., Winokur, G., & Munoz, R. (1972). Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research. Archives of General Psychiatry, 26, 57–63.Google Scholar
Frith, C. D., Friston, K. J., Liddle, P. F., & Frackowiak, R. S. J. (1991). A PET study of word finding. Neuropsychologia, 29, 1137–1148.Google Scholar
Fuster, J. M. (1997). The prefrontal cortex: Anatomy, physiology and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe (3rd ed.). New York: Raven.
Goel, V., Pullara, S. D., & Grafman, J. (2001). A computational model of frontal lobe dysfunction: Working memory and the Tower of Hanoi task. Cognitive Science, 25, 287–313.Google Scholar
Golden, C. J. (1978). Stroop Color and Word Test: A manual for clinical and experimental issues. Wood Dale, IL: Stoelting Company.
Gray, J. A. (1991). Neural systems, emotion, and personality. In J. Madden IV (Ed.), Neurobiology of learning, emotion, and affect (pp. 273–306). New York: Raven Press.
Jastak, S., & Wilkinson, G. S. (1984). The Wide Range Achievement Test—Revised administration manual. Wilmington, DE: Jastak Associates.
Kagan, J., Reznick, S., & Snidman, N. (1990). The temperamental qualities of inhibition and lack of inhibition. In M. Lewis & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp. 219–226). New York: Plenum Press.
Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36, 220–232.Google Scholar
Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Loring, D. W., Hannay, H. J., & Fischer, J. S. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Logan, G. D. (1994). A user's guide to the stop signal paradigm. In D. Dagenbach & T. H. Carr (Eds.), Inhibitory processes in attention, memory, and language (pp. 189–239). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Luria, A. R. (1966). The role of verbal kinesthesias in higher cortical processes. In Human brain and psychological processes (pp. 294–357). New York: Harper & Row.
Luria, A. R. (1969). Speech development and the formation of mental processes. In M. Cole & F. Maltzman (Eds.), A handbook of contemporary Soviet psychology (pp. 121–162). New York: Basic Books.
Luria, A. R. (1981). Language and cognition. New York: Wiley.
Lyon, G. R., & Krasnegor, N. A. (1996). Attention, memory and executive function. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
MacLeod, C. M. (1991). Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 163–203.Google Scholar
McManis, M. H., Kagan, J., Snidman, N. C., & Woodward, S. A. (2002). EEG asymmetry, power, and temperament in children. Developmental Psychobiology, 41, 169–177.Google Scholar
Miller, E. K. (2000). The prefrontal cortex and cognitive control. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 1, 59–65.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.Google Scholar
Murray, K. T., & Kochanska, G. (2002). Effortful control: Factor structure and relation to externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 503–514.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (1999). The ADHD response-inhibition deficit as measured by the STOP task: Replication with DSM-IV combined type, extension, and qualification. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 393–402.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (2000). On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psycyhopathology: View from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 220–246.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T., & Huang-Pollock, C. L. (2003). An early onset model of the role of executive functions and intelligence in conduct disorder/delinquency. In B. B. Lahey, T. Moffitt, & A. Caspi (Eds.), The causes of conduct disorder and serious juvenile delinquency (pp. 227–253). New York: Guilford Press.
Nigg, J. T., Quamma, J. P., Greenberg, M. T., & Kusche, C. A. (1999). A two-year longitudinal study of neuropsychological and cognitive performance in relation to behavioral problems and social competencies in elementary school children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 51–63.Google Scholar
Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 51–87.Google Scholar
Perret, E. (1974). The left frontal lobe of man and the suppression of habitual responses in verbal categorical behavior. Neuropsychologia, 12, 323–330.Google Scholar
Pickering, A. D., & Gray, J. A. (1999). The neuroscience of personality. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 277–299). New York: Guilford Press.
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2000). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 427–441.Google Scholar
Raftery, A. E. (1995). Bayesian model selection in social research. Sociological Methodology, 25, 111–163.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K. (1989a). Biological processes in temperament. In G. A. Kohnstamm, J. E. Bates, & M. K. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in childhood (pp. 77–110). Chichester: Wiley.
Rothbart, M. K. (1989b). Temperament and development. In G. A. Kohnstamm, J. E. Bates, & M. K. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in childhood (pp. 187–247). Chichester: Wiley.
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., & Evans, D. E. (2000). Temperament and personality: Origins and outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 122–135.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. In W. Damon (Ser. Ed.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (Vol. 3, pp. 105–176). New York: Wiley.
Rothbart, M. K., Posner, M. I., & Hershey, K. L. (1995). Temperament, attention, and developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Theory and methods (Vol. 1, pp. 315–340). Oxford: Wiley.
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.Google Scholar
Schwarz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimensions of a model. Annals of Statistics, 6, 461–464.Google Scholar
Sergeant, J. A., van der Meere, J., & Oosterlaan, J. (1999). Information processing and energetic factors in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In H. C. Quay & A. E. Hogan (Eds.), Handbook of disruptive behavior disorders (pp. 75–104). New York: Kluwer/Plenum Press.
Singer, J. D. (1998). Using SAS PROC MIXED to fit multilevel models, hierarchical models, and individual growth models. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 23, 323–355.Google Scholar
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. London: Oxford University Press.
Smith, A. (1982). The Symbol Digit Modalities Test Manual—Revised. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Thurstone, I. L., & Thurstone, T. (1949). Examiner manual for the SRA primary mental abilities. Chicago: Scientific Resources Associates.
Valiente, C., Eisenberg, N., Smith, C. L., Reiser, M., Fabes, R. A., Losoya, S., et al. (2003). The relations of effortful control and reactive control to children's externalizing problems: A longitudinal assessment. Journal of Personality, 71, 1171–1196.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1974). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised (manual). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
Weinberger, D. R., Berman, K. F., Gold, J., & Goldberg, T. (1994). Neural mechanisms of future-oriented processes: In vivo physiological studies of humans. In M. M. Haith, J. B. Benson, R. J. Roberts, & B. F. Pennington (Eds.), The development of future-oriented processes (pp. 221–242). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
White, J. L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Bartusch, D. J., Needles, D. J., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1994). Measuring impulsivity and examining its relationship to delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 192–205.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., Muller, U., Frye, D., & Marcovitch, S. (2003). The development of executive function: Cognitive complexity and control—Revised. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 68, 93–119.Google Scholar
Zucker, R. A., Ellis, D. A., Bingham, C. R., Fitzgerald, H. E., & Sanford, K. P. (1996). Other evidence for at least two alcoholisms, II: Life course variation in antisociality and heterogeneity of alcoholic outcome. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 831–848.Google Scholar
Zucker, R. A., Fitzgerald, H. E., Refior, S. K., Puttler, L. I., Pallas, D. M. & Ellis, D. A. (2000). The clinical and social ecology of childhood for children of alcoholics: Description of a study and implications for a differentiated social policy. In H. E. Fitzgerald, B. M. Lester, & B. S. Zuckerman (Eds.), Children of addiction: Research, health and policy issues (pp. 174–222). New York: Garland Press.
Zucker, R. A., & Wong, M. M. (2005). Prevention for children of alcoholics and other high risk groups. In M. Galanter (Ed.), Recent developments in alcoholism: Vol. 17. Alcohol problems in adolescents and young adults (Chap. 14, pp. 299–319). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.