Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-04T19:22:07.821Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Atypical communication characteristics among clinic-referred youth with and without autism spectrum disorder: Stability and associations with clinical correlates

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 September 2020

Erin Kang ,
Matthew D. Lerner  and
Kenneth D. Gadow
Erin Kang*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA Department of Psychology, Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ, USA
Matthew D. Lerner
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA Department of Psychiatry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
Kenneth D. Gadow
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Erin Kang, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ07043; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Atypical communication characteristics (ACCs), such as speech delay, odd pitch, and pragmatic difficulties, are common features of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) as are the symptoms of a wide range of psychiatric disorders. Using a simple retrospective method, this study aimed to better understand the relation and stability of ACCs with a broad range of psychiatric symptoms among large, well-characterized samples of clinic-referred children and adolescents with and without ASD. Youth with ASD had higher rates and a more variable pattern of developmental change in ACCs than the non-ASD diagnostic group. Latent class analysis yielded three ACC stability subgroups within ASD: Stable ACCs, Mostly Current-Only ACCs, and Little Professors. Subgroups exhibited differences in severity of ASD symptomatology, co-occurring psychiatric symptoms, and other correlates. Our findings provide support for the clinical utility of characterizing caregiver-perceived changes in ACCs in identifying children at risk for co-occurring psychopathology and other clinically relevant variables.

Keywords

atypical communication characteristics (ACC)autism spectrum disorder (ASD)comorbiditylatent class analysis
Type
Special Section Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 32 , Special Issue 4: Conceptualizing and Interrogating Autism Spectrum Disorder from a Developmental Psychopathology Framework , October 2020 , pp. 1240 - 1253
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Akaike, H. (1987). Factor analysis and AIC. Psychometrika, 52, 317–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed. tr). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Anderson, D. K., Lord, C., Risi, S., DiLavore, P. S., Shulman, C., Thurm, A., … Pickles, A. (2007). Patterns of growth in verbal abilities among children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 594–604. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.75.4.594CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Antshel, K. M., Polacek, C., McMahon, M., Dygert, K., Spencely, L., Dygert, L., … Faisal, F. (2011). Comorbid ADHD and anxiety affect social skills group intervention treatment efficacy in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 32, 439–446. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e318222355dCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asperger, H. (1944). Die “Autistischen Psychopathen” im Kindesalter. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 117, 76–136.Google Scholar
Baltaxe, C. A., & D'Angiola, N. (1992). Cohesion in the disclosure interaction of autistic, specifically language-impaired, and normal children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 22, 1–21. doi.org/10.1007/BF01046399CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beitchman, J. H. H., Nair, R., Clegg, M., Ferguson, B., & Patel, P. G. G. (1986). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in children with speech and language disorders. Journal of American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25(4), 528–535. doi:10.1016/S0002-7138(10)60013-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berlin, K. S., Williams, N. A., & Parra, G. R. (2014). An introduction to latent variable mixture modeling (Part 1): Overview and cross-sectional latent class and latent profile analyses. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 39, 174–187. doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jst084CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cantwell, DP, & Baker, L. (1991). Association between attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and learning disorders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24(2), 88–95. doi:10.1177/002221949102400205CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charman, T., Taylor, E., Drew, A., Cockerill, H., Brown, J. A., & Baird, G. (2005). Outcome at 7 years of children diagnosed with autism at age 2: Predictive validity of assessments conducted at 2 and 3 years of age and pattern of symptom change over time. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 46, 500–513. doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00377.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Bildt, A., Oosterling, I. J., Van Lang, N. D. J., Sytema, S., Minderaa, R. B., Van Engeland, H., … De Jonge, M. V. (2011). Standardized ADOS scores: Measuring severity of autism spectrum disorders in a Dutch sample. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41, 311–319. doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1057-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Los Reyes, A. (2011). Introduction to the special section: More than measurement error: Discovering meaning behind informant discrepancies in clinical assessments of children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 1–9. doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2011.533405CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eicher, J. D., & Gruen, J. R. (2015). Language impairment and dyslexia genes influence language skills in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Research, 8, 229–234. doi.org/10.1002/aur.1436CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fay, W. H., & Schuler, A. L. (1980). Emerging language in autistic children. Baltimore: University Park Press.Google Scholar
Gadow, K. D. (2016). The Symptom Inventories: An annotated bibliography. Stony Brook: Checkmate Plus. Retrieved from www.checkmateplus.comGoogle Scholar
Gadow, K. D., DeVincent, C. J., Pomeroy, J., & Azizian, A. (2004a). Psychiatric symptoms in preschool children with PDD and clinic and comparison samples. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 379–393. doi.org/10.1023/B:JADD.0000037415.21458.93CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gadow, K. D., DeVincent, C. J., Pomeroy, J., & Azizian, A. (2005). Comparison of DSM-IV symptoms in elementary school-age children with PDD versus clinic and community samples. Autism, 9, 392–415. doi.org/10.1177/1362361305056079CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gadow, K. D., DeVincent, C., & Schneider, J. (2008a). Predictors of psychiatric symptoms in children with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1710–1720. doi.org/10.1007/s10803-008-0556-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gadow, K. D., Drabick, D. A. G., Loney, J., Sprafkin, J., Salisbury, H., Azizian, A., & Schwartz, J. (2004b). Comparison of ADHD symptom subtypes as source-specific syndromes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 45, 1135–1149. doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00306.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gadow, K. D., Kaat, A. J., & Lecavalier, L. (2013). Relation of symptom-induced impairment with other illness parameters in clinic-referred youth. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 54, 1198–1207. doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12077CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gadow, K. D., Perlman, G., Ramdhany, L., & de Ruiter, J. (2016). Clinical correlates of co-occurring psychiatric and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptom-induced impairment in children with ASD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(1), 129–139. doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-9979-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gadow, K. D., Schwartz, J., DeVincent, C., Strong, G., & Cuva, S. (2008b). Clinical utility of autism spectrum disorder scoring algorithms for the Child Symptom Inventory-4. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 419–427. doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0408-yCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gadow, K. D., & Sprafkin, J. (2002). Childhood symptom inventory-4 screening and norms manual. Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus.Google Scholar
Gadow, K. D., & Sprafkin, J. (2005). Child and adolescent symptom inventory-4R. Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus.Google Scholar
Gadow, K. D., & Sprafkin, J. (2008). Adolescent Symptom Inventory-4 screening and norms manual. Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus.Google Scholar
Geurts, H. M., & Embrechts, M. (2008). Language profiles in ASD, SLI, and ADHD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1931–1943. doi.org/10.1007/s10803-008-0587-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gurevitz, M., Geva, R., Varon, M., & Leitner, Y. (2014). Early markers in infants and toddlers for development of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18, 14–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hauerwas, L. B., & Stone, C. A. (2000). Are parents of school-age children with specific language impairments accurate estimators of their child's language skills? Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 16, 73–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hippler, K., & Klicpera, C. (2003). A retrospective analysis of the clinical case records of “autistic psychopaths” diagnosed by Hans Asperger and his team at the University Children's Hospital, Vienna. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 358, 291–301. doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2002.1197CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howlin, P., Mawhood, L., & Rutter, M. (2000). Autism and developmental receptive language disorder–a follow-up comparison in early adult life. II: Social, behavioural, and psychiatric outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 41, 561–578. doi.org/doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00643CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hus Bal, V., & Lord, C. (2015). Replication of standardized ADOS domain scores in the Simons simplex collection. Autism Research, 8, 583–592. doi.org/10.1002/aur.1474CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, M. H., Gliga, T., Jones, E., & Charman, T. (2015). Annual research review: Infant development, autism, and ADHD - Early pathways to emerging disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 56, 228–247. doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12328CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaat, A. J., Gadow, K. D., & Lecavalier, L. (2013). Psychiatric symptom impairment in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 959–969. doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013-9739-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kang, E., Gadow, K. D., & Lerner, M. D. (2020). Atypical communication characteristics, differential diagnosis, and the autism spectrum disorder phenotype in youth. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 49, 251–263. doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2018.1539912CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanner, L. (1944). Early infantile autism. The Journal of Pediatrics, 25, 211–217. doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(44)80156-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kjelgaard, M. M., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2001). An investigation of language impairment in autism: Implications for genetic subgroups. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16, 287–308. doi.org/10.1080/01690960042000058CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klin, A., Jones, W., Schultz, R., & Volkmar, F. (2003). The enactive mind, or from actions to cognition: Lessons from autism. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 358, 345–360. doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2002.1202CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarsfeld, P. F., & Henry, N. W. (1968). Latent structure analysis. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.Google Scholar
Lecavalier, L., Gadow, K. D., DeVincent, C. J., Houts, C., & Edwards, M. C. (2009). Deconstructing the PDD clinical phenotype: Internal validity of the DSM-IV. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 50, 1246–1254. doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02104.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lerner, M. D., De Los Reyes, A., Drabick, D. A. G., Gerber, A. H., & Gadow, K. D. (2017). Informant discrepancy defines discrete, clinically useful autism spectrum disorder subgroups. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58, 829–839. doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12730CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livingston, L. A., Shah, P., & Happé, F. (2019). Compensatory strategies below the behavioural surface in autism: A qualitative study. The Lancet Psychiatry, 6, 766–777. doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30224-XCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lombardo, M. V., Pierce, K., Eyler, L. T., Carter Barnes, C., Ahrens-Barbeau, C., Solso, S., … Courchesne, E. (2015). Different functional neural substrates for good and poor language outcome in autism. Neuron, 86, 567–577. doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.03.023CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lord, C., Luyster, R., Guthrie, W., & Pickles, A. (2012a). Patterns of developmental trajectories in toddlers with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80, 477–489. doi.org/10.1037/a0027214CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lord, C., Rutter, M., Dilavore, P. C., & Risi, S. (2008). ADOS: Autism diagnostic observation schedule. Boston: Hogrefe.Google Scholar
Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P., Risi, S., Gotham, K., & Bishop, S. (2012b). Autism diagnostic observation schedule–2nd edition (ADOS-2). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Luyster, R., Kadlec, M. B., Carter, A., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2008). Language assessment and development in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1426–1438. doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0510-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyngberg, K., Buchy, L., Liu, L., Perkins, D., Woods, S., & Addington, J. (2015). Patterns of premorbid functioning in individuals at clinical high risk of psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 169, 209–213. doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2015.11.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marchesi, C., Affaticati, A., Monici, A., De Panfilis, C., Ossola, P., Ottoni, R., & Tonna, M. (2015). Decrease of functioning in remitted and non-remitted patients 16 years after a first-episode schizophrenia. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 203, 406–411. doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0000000000000299CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matson, J. L., & Horovitz, M. (2010). Stability of autism spectrum disorders symptoms over time. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 22, 331–342. doi.org/10.1007/s10882-010-9188-yCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mawhood, L., Howlin, P., & Rutter, M. (2000). Autism and developmental receptive language disorder–a comparative follow-up in early adult life. I: Cognitive and language outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 41, 547–559. doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00642CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLachlan, G., & Peel, D. (2004). Finite mixture models. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Miniscalco, C., Nygren, G., Hagberg, B., Kadesjö, B., & Gillberg, C. (2006). Neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental outcome of children at age 6 and 7 years who screened positive for language problems at 30 months. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 48, 361–366. doi.org/10.1017/S0012162206000788CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miodovnik, A., Harstad, E., Sideridis, G., & Huntington, N. (2015). Timing of the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 136, 4. doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-1502CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Houts, R., Asherson, P., Belsky, D. W., Corcoran, D. L., Hammerle, M., … Caspi, A. (2015). Is adult ADHD a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder? Evidence from a four-decade longitudinal cohort study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, appiajp201514101266. doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14101266CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mottron, L. (2017). Should we change targets and methods of early intervention in autism, in favor of a strengths-based education? European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 815–825. doi.org/10.1007/s00787-017-0955-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mundy, P. C., Henderson, H. a., Inge, A. P., & Coman, D. C. (2007). The modifier model of autism and social development in higher functioning children. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities: The Journal of TASH, 32, 124–139. doi.org/10.1002/aur.17CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mundy, P., & Neal, R. (2001). Neural plasticity, joint attention and autistic developmental pathology. International Review of Research in Mental Retardation, 23, 139–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muthén, B. O., & Muthén, L. K. (2012). Software Mplus Version 7.Google Scholar
Narendorf, S. C., Shattuck, P. T., & Sterzing, P. R. (2011). Mental health service use among adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder. Psychiatric Services, 62, 612–615. doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.62.8.975CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 535–569. doi.org/10.1080/10705510701575396CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owlin, P. (2005). Outcomes in autism spectrum disorders. In Volkmar, FR, Paul, R, Klin, A, & Cohen, D (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (3rd ed. pp. 201–220). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons Inc.Google Scholar
Pereira, M. S., Pasman, H. R., van der Heide, A., van Delden, J. J. M., & Onwuteaka-Philipsen, B. D. (2015). Old age and forgoing treatment: a nationwide mortality follow-back study in the Netherlands. Journal of Medical Ethics, 41(9), 766–770. doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2014-102367CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perry, A., Cummings, A., Geier, J. D., Freeman, N. L., Hughes, S., Managhan, T., … Williams, J. (2011). Predictors of outcome for children receiving intensive behavioral intervention in a large, community-based program. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 592–603. doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.07.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pickles, A., Anderson, D. K., & Lord, C. (2014). Heterogeneity and plasticity in the development of language: a 17-year follow-up of children referred early for possible autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 1354–1362. doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12269CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramaswamy, V, Desarbo, WS, Reibstein, DJ, & Robinson, WT. (1993). An Empirical pooling approach for estimating marketing mix elasticities with PIMS data. Marketing Science, 12(1), 103–124. doi:10.1287/mksc.12.1.103CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, J. A., Rice, M. L., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2004). Tense marking in children with autism. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 429–448. doi.org/10.1017/S0142716404001201CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosen, T. E., Spaulding, C. J., Gates, J. A., & Lerner, M. D. (2019). Autism severity, co-occurring psychopathology, and intellectual functioning predict supportive school services for youth with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 23, 1805–1816. doi.org/10.1177/1362361318809690CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., Bailey, A., & Lord, C. (2003). Manual of the social communication questionnaire. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Sallows, G. O., & Graupner, T. D. (2005). Intensive behavioral treatment for children with autism: Four-year outcome and predictors. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 110, 417. doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2005)110[417:IBTFCW]2.0.CO;2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samson, F., Mottron, L., Soulières, I., & Zeffiro, T. A. (2012). Enhanced visual functioning in autism: An ALE meta-analysis. Human Brain Mapping, 33, 1553–1581. doi.org/10.1002/hbm.21307CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwarz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. The Annals of Statistics, 6, 461–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sclove, S. L. (1987). Application of model-selection criteria to some problems in multivariate analysis. Psychometrika, 52, 333–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shumway, S., Farmer, C., Thurm, A., Joseph, L., Black, D., & Golden, C. (2012). The ADOS calibrated severity score: Relationship to phenotypic variables and stability over time. Autism Research, 5, 267–276. doi.org/10.1002/aur.1238CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegel, D. J., Minshew, N. J., & Goldstein, G. (1996). Wechsler IQ profiles in diagnosis of high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 389–406. doi.org/10.1007/BF02172825CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sigman, M., & McGovern, C. W. (2005). Improvement in cognitive and language skills from preschool to adolescence in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 15–23. doi.org/10.1007/s10803-004-1027-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sprafkin, J., Steinberg, E. A., Gadow, K. D., & Drabick, D. A. G. (2016). Agreement among categorical, dimensional, and impairment criteria for ADHD and common comorbidities. Journal of Attention Disorders, 20, 665–673. doi.org/10.1177/1087054712475083.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tager-Flusberg, H., Paul, R., Yoder, P., Rogers, S., Cooper, J., Landa, R., … Yoder, P. (2009). Defining spoken language benchmarks and selecting measures of expressive language development for young children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 52, 643–652. doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0136)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thal, D. J., O'Hanlon, L., Clemmons, M., & Fralin, L. (1999). Validity of a parent report measure of vocabulary and syntax for preschool children with language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 482–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ung, D., Johnco, C., McBride, N. M., Howie, F., Scalli, L., & Storch, E. a. (2016). Optimizing the screening of autism spectrum disorders in outpatient clinics: An examination of the Social Communication Questionnaire-Lifetime. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 27, 21–28. doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2016.03.011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Volden, J., & Lord, C. (1991). Neologisms and idiosyncratic language in autistic speakers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 21, 109–130. doi.org/10.1007/BF02284755CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wei, T., Chesnut, S. R., Barnard-Brak, L., & Richman, D. (2015). Psychometric analysis of the social communication questionnaire using an item-response theory framework: Implications for the use of the lifetime and current forms. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 37, 469–480. doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9468-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, S., Vaidyanathan, U., Miller, M. B., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2014). Premorbid risk factors for major depressive disorder: Are they associated with early onset and recurrent course? Development and Psychopathology, 26, 1477–1493. doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414001151CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wing, L. (1981). Asperger's syndrome: A clinical account. Psychological Medicine, 11, 115–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wodka, E. L., Mathy, P., & Kalb, L. (2013). Predictors of phrase and fluent speech in children with Autism and severe language delay. Pediatrics, 131, doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-2221CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yew, S. G. K., & O'Kearney, R. (2013). Emotional and behavioural outcomes later in childhood and adolescence for children with specific language impairments: Meta-analyses of controlled prospective studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 54, 516–524. doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed