Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-gb8f7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T15:47:22.419Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Antisocial behavior from a developmental psychopathology perspective

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2009

Paul J. Frick*
Affiliation:
University of New Orleans
Essi Viding
Affiliation:
University College London
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Paul J. Frick, Department of Psychology, University of New Orleans, 2001 Geology and Psychology Building, New Orleans, LA 70148; E-mail: [email protected].

Abstract

This paper reviews research on chronic patterns of antisocial behavior and places this research into a developmental psychopathology framework. Specifically, research suggests that there are at least three important pathways through which children and adolescents can develop severe antisocial behaviors. One group of youth shows antisocial behavior that begins in adolescence, and two groups show antisocial behavior that begins in childhood but differ on the presence or absence of callous–unemotional traits. In outlining these distinct pathways to antisocial behavior, we have tried to illustrate some key concepts from developmental psychopathology such as equifinality and multifinality, the importance of understanding the interface between normal and abnormal development, and the importance of using multiple levels of analyses to advance causal theories. Finally, we discuss how this development model can be used to enhance existing interventions for antisocial individuals.

Type
Regular Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association. (1980). The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1987). The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Aguilar, B., Sroufe, A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (2000). Distinguishing the early-onset/persistent and adolescence-onset antisocial behavior types: From birth to 16 years. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 109132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andershed, H., Gustafson, S. B., Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2002). The usefulness of self-reported psychopathy-like traits in the study of antisocial behaviour among non-referred adolescents. European Journal of Personality, 16, 383402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P. (2003). Taxometrics and developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 501527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Binder, A. (1987). An historical and theoretical introduction. In Quay, H. C. (Ed.), Handbook of juvenile delinquency (pp. 133). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Blair, R. J. R. (1999) Responsiveness to distress cues in the child with psychopathic tendencies. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 135145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, R. J. R., Mitchell, D., & Blair, K. (2005). The psychopath: Emotion and the brain. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Blonigen, D. M., Hicks, B. M., Kruger, R. F., Patrick, C. P., & Iacono, W. G. (2006). Continuity and change in psychopathic traits as measured via normal-range personality: A longitudinal-biometric study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 8595.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brezina, T., & Piquero, A. R. (2007). Moral beliefs, isolation from peers, and abstention from delinquency. Deviant Behavior, 28, 433465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broidy, L. M., Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E., Bates, J. E., Brame, B. U, Dodge, K. A., et al. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: A six-site, cross-national study. Developmental Psychology, 39, 222245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. Trends in Neurosciences, 31, 120129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burke, J. D., Loeber, R., & Lahey, B. B. (2007). Adolescent conduct disorder and interpersonal callousness as predictors of psychopathy in young adults. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 334346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burns, B., Howell, J. C., Wiig, J. K., Augimeri, L. K., Welsh, B. C., Loeber, R., et al. (2003). Treatment, services, and intervention programs for child delinquents. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Child Delinquency Bulletin Series, March, 115.Google Scholar
Card, N. A., & Little, T. D. (2006). Proactive and reactive aggression in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis of differential relations with psychosocial adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 466480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chi-Ming, K., Greenberg, M. T., & Walls, C. T. (2003). Examining the role of implementation quality in school-based prevention using the PATH curriculum. Prevention Science, 4, 5563.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Sturge-Apple, M. L. (2007). Interactions of child maltreatment and serotonin transporter and monoamine oxidase A polymorphisms: Depressive symptomatology among adolescents from low socioeconomic status backgrounds. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 11611180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cleckley, (1976). The mask of sanity. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R. (1987). A systematic method for clinical description and classification of personality variants. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 573588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2004). The effects of the Fast Track Program on serious problem outcome at the end of elementary school. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 650661.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cornell, A. H., & Frick, P. J. (2007). The moderating effects of parenting styles in the association between behavioral inhibition and parent-reported guilt and empathy in preschool children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 305318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crick, N. R. (1996). The role of overt aggression, relational aggression, and prosocial behavior in the prediction of children's future social adjustment. Child Development, 67, 23172327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crick, N. R., Casas, J. F., & Mosher, M. (1997). Relational and overt aggression in preschool. Developmental Psychology, 33, 579588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social–psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710722.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dadds, M. R., Fraser, J., Frost, A., & Hawes, D. (2005). Disentangling the underlying dimensions of psychopathy and conduct problems in childhood: A community study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 400410.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dandreaux, D. M., & Frick, P. J. (2009). Developmental pathways to conduct problems: A further test of the childhood and adolescent-onset distinction. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 375385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, R. J., Putnam, K. M., & Larson, C. L. (2000). Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation: A possible prelude to violence. Science, 289, 591594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2003). A biopsychosocial model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 39, 349371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edens, J. F., Campbell, J. S., & Weir, J. M. (2007). Youth psychopathy and criminal recidivism: A meta-analysis of the psychopathy checklist measures. Law and Human Behavior, 31, 5375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edens, J. F., Skeem, J. L., Cruise, K. R., & Cauffman, E. (2001). Assessment of “juvenile psychopathy” and its association with violence: A critical review. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 19, 5380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edens, J. F., Skopp, N. A., & Cahill, M. A. (2008). Psychopathic features moderate the relationship between harsh and inconsistent parental discipline and adolescent antisocial behavior. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 472476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Enebrink, P., Anderson, H., & Langstrom, N. (2005). Callous–unemotional traits are associated with clinical severity in referred boys with conduct problems. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 59, 431440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eyberg, S. M., Nelson, M. M., & Boggs, S. R. (2008). Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with disruptive behavior. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 215237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrington, D. P., Gallagher, B., Morley, L., St. Ledger, R. J., & West, D. (1988). Are there any successful men from criminogenic backgrounds? Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Processes, 51, 116130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, D. M., Lynsky, M. T., & Horwood, L. J. (1996). Factors associated with continuity and changes in disruptive behavior patterns between childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 533553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finger, E. C., Marsh, A. A., Mitchell, D. G., Reid, M. E., Sims, C., Budhani, S., Kosson, D. S., et al. (2008). Abnormal ventromedial prefrontal cortex function in children with psychopathic traits during reversal learning. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 586594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fowles, D. C., & Kochanska, G. (2000). Temperament as a moderator of pathways to conscience in children: The contribution of electrodermal activity. Psychophysiology, 37, 788795.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J. (2006). Developmental pathways to conduct disorder. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15, 311331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., Cornell, A. H., Barry, C. T., Bodin, S. D., & Dane, H. E. (2003). Callous–unemotional traits and conduct problems in the prediction of conduct problem severity, aggression, and self-report of delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 457470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., Cornell, A. H., Bodin, S. D., Dane, H. A., Barry, C. T., & Loney, B. R. (2003). Callous–unemotional traits and developmental pathways to severe conduct problems. Developmental Psychology, 39, 246260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., & Dickens, C. (2006). Current perspectives on conduct disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports, 8, 5972.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., Kimonis, E. R., Dandreaux, D. M., & Farrell, J. M. (2003). The 4-year stability of psychopathic traits in non-referred youth. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 21, 713736.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Tannenbaum, L. E., Van Horn, Y., Christ, M. A. G., et al. (1993). Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: A meta-analytic review of factor analyses and cross-validation in a clinic sample. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 319340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frick, P. J., Lilienfeld, S. O., Ellis, M., Loney, B., & Silverthorn, P. (1999). The association between anxiety and psychopathy dimensions in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 383392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., & Loney, B. R. (1999). Outcomes of children and adolescents with conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder. In Quay, H. C. & Hogan, A. (Eds.), Handbook of disruptive behavior disorders (pp. 507524). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Marsee, M. A. (2006). Psychopathy and developmental pathways to antisocial behavior in youth. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), The handbook of psychopathy (pp. 353375). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Morris, A. S. (2004). Temperament and developmental pathways to conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 5468.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., & White, S. F. (2008). Research review: The importance of callous–unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 359375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossman, J. B., & Tierney, J. P. (1998). Does mentoring work? An impact study of the Big Brothers/Big Sisters program. Evaluation Review, 22, 403426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hare, R. D. (1993). Without conscience: The disturbing world of the psychopaths among us. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hawes, D. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2005). The treatment of conduct problems in children with callous–unemotional traits. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 737741.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hemphill, J. F. (2007). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist and recidivism: Methodological issues and critically evaluating empirical evidence. In Herve, H. & Yuille, J. C. (Eds.), The psychopath: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 141172). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Henggeler, S. W., Schoenwald, S. K., Borduin, C. M., Rowland, M. D., & Cunningham, P. B. (1998). Multisystemic treatment of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Herpertz, S. C., Huebner, T., Marx, I., Vloet, T. D., Fink, G. R., Stoecker, T., et al. (2008). Emotional processing in male adolescents with childhood-onset conduct disorder. Journal Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 781791.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hipwell, A. E., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Keenan, K., White, H. R., & Kroneman, L. (2002). Characteristics of girls with early onset disruptive and antisocial behaviour. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 12, 99118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, A. P., Laurens, K. L., Herba, C., Barker, G., & Viding, E. (2009). Amygdala hypoactivity to fearful faces in boys with conduct problems and callous–unemotional traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 95102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kagan, J., & Snidman, N. (1991). Tempermental factors in human development. American Psychologist, 46, 856862.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., Williams, B., Newcombe, R., Craig, I. W., et al. (2006). MAOA, maltreatment, and gene–environment interaction predicting children's mental health: New evidence and a meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 11, 903913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimonis, E. R., Frick, P. J., Skeem, J., Marsee, M. A., Cruise, K., Munoz, L. C., et al. (2008). Assessing callous–unemotional traits in adolescent offenders: Validation of the Inventory of Callous–Unemotional Traits. Journal of the International Association of Psychiatry and Law, 31, 241251.Google ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G. (1993). Toward a synthesis of parental socialization and child temperament in early development of conscience. Child Development, 64, 325347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochanska, G., DeVet, K., Goldman, M., Murray, K., & Putnam, S. P. (1994). Maternal reports of conscience development and temperament in young children. Child Development, 65, 852868.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Gross, J. N., Lin, M., & Nichols, K. E. (2002). Guilt in young children: Development, determinants, and relations with a broader system of standards. Child Development, 73, 461482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kratzer, L., & Hodgins, S. (1999). A typology of offenders: A test of Moffitt's theory among males and females from childhood to age 30. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 9, 5773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krueger, R. F., Hicks, B. M., Patrick, C. J., Carlson, S. R., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2002). Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior, and personality: modeling the externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 411424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B., & Lozano, R. (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva: World Health Organisation.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kruh, I. P., Frick, P. J., & Clements, C. B. (2005). Historical and personality correlates to the violence patterns of juveniles tried as adults. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 32, 6996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lacourse, E., Dupere, V., & Loeber, R. (2008). Developmental trajectories of violence and theft. In Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & White, H. R. (Eds.), Violence and serious theft: Development and prediction from childhood to adulthood (pp. 231268). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Björkqvist, K., & Peltonen, T. (1988). Is indirect aggression typical of females? Gender differences in aggressiveness in 11-to 12-year-old children. Aggressive Behavior, 14, 403414.3.0.CO;2-D>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahey, B. B., & Loeber, R. (1994). Framework for a developmental model of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. In Routh, D. K. (Ed.), Disruptive behavior disorders in childhood (pp. 139180). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Burke, J. D., & Applegate, B. (2005). Predicting future antisocial personality disorder in males from a clinical assessment in childhood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 389399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lahey, B. B., Van Hulle, C. A., Waldman, I. D., Rodgers, J. L, D'Onofrio, B. M., Pedlow, S., et al. (2006). Testing descriptive hypotheses regarding sex differences in the development of conduct problems and delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 737755.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lahey, B. B., & Waldman, I. D. (2003). A developmental propensity model of the origins of conduct problems during childhood and adolescence. In Lahey, B. B., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (Eds.), Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency (pp. 76117). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Larson, J., & Lochman, J. E. (2003). Helping schoolchildren cope with anger. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Larsson, H., Viding, E., Rijsdijk, F., & Plomin, R. (2008). Relationships between a parental negativity and childhood antisocial behavior over time: A bidirectional effect model in a longitudinal genetically informative design. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 633645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lilienfeld, S. O., & Marino, L. (1995). Mental disorder as a Roschian concept: A critique of Wakefield's “harmful dysfunction” analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 411420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leistico, A. R., Salekin, R. T., DeCoster, J., & Rogers, R. (2008). A large-scale meta-analysis related the Hare measures of psychopathy to antisocial conduct. Law and Human Behavior, 32, 2845.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (2001). The significance of child delinquency. In Loeber, R. & Farrington, D. (Eds.), Child delinquents: Development, intervention, and service needs (pp. 124). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loney, B. R., Butler, M. A., Lima, E. N., Counts, C. A., & Eckel, L. A. (2006). The relation between salivary cortisol, callous–unemotional traits, and conduct problems in an adolescent non-referred sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 3036.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loney, B. R., Frick, P. J., Clements, C. B., Ellis, M. L., & Kerlin, K. (2003). Callous–unemotional traits, impulsivity, and emotional processing in adolescents with antisocial behavior problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 6680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loney, B. R., Taylor, J., Butler, M. A., & Iacono, W. G. (2007). Adolescent psychopathy features: 6-year stability and the prediction of externalizing symptoms during the transition to adulthood. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 242252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lykken, D. (1995). The antisocial personalities. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Lynam, D. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2007). Longitudinal evidence that psychopathy scores in early adolescence predict adult psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 155165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynam, D. R., & Widiger, T. A. (2001). Using the five-factor model to represent the DSM-IV personality disorders: An expert consensus approach. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 401412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahoney, J. L., & Stattin, H. (2000). Leisure activities and adolescent antisocial behavior: The role of structure and social context. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 113127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manuck, S. B., Flory, J. D., Ferrell, R. E., Mann, J. J., & Muldoon, M. F. (2000). A regulatory polymorphism of the monoamine oxidase: A gene may be associated with variability in aggression, impulsivity, and central nervous system serotonergic responsivity. Psychiatry Research, 95, 923.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsee, M. A., & Frick, P. J. (2007). Exploring the cognitive and emotional correlates to proactive and reactive aggression in a sample of detained girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 969981.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsh, A. A., Finger, E. C., Mitchell, D. G., Reid, M. E., Sims, C., Kosson, D. S., et al. (2008). Reduced amygdala response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous–unemotional traits and disruptive behavior disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 712720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mason, D. A., & Frick, P. J. (1994). The heritabilty of antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 16, 301323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCabe, K. M., Hough, R., Wood, P. A., & Yeh, M. (2001). Childhood and adolescent onset conduct disorder: A test of the developmental taxonomy. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 305316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E. (2003). Life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial behavior: A 10-year research review and research agenda. In Lahey, B. B., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (Eds.), Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency (pp. 4975). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2001). Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways in males and females. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 355376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Dickson, N., Silva, P., & Stanton, W. (1996). Childhood-onset versus adolescent-onset antisocial conduct problems in males: Natural history from ages 3 to 18 years. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 399424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., & Milne, B. J. (2002). Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: Follow-up at age 26 years. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 179207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munoz, L. C., & Frick, P. J. (2007). The reliability, stability, and predictive utility of the self-report version of the Antisocial Process Screening Device. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 48, 299312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munoz, L. C., Frick, P. J., Kimonis, E. R., & Aucoin, K. J. (2008). Types of aggression, responsiveness to provocation, and callous–unemotional traits in detained adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 1528.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newman, J. P. (1987). Reaction to punishment in extraverts and psychopaths: Implications for the impulsive behavior of disinhibited individuals. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 464480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nuffield Council on Bioethics. (2002). Genetics and human behaviour: The ethical context. London: Nuffield Council on Bioethics.Google Scholar
Obradović, J., Pardini, D., Long, J. D., & Loeber, R. (2007). Measuring interpersonal callousness in boys from childhood to adolescence: An examination of longitudinal invariance and temporal stability. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 276292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Leary, M. M., Loney, B. R., & Eckel, L. A. (2007). Gender differences in the association between psychopathic personality traits and cortisol response to induced stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32, 183191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ostrov, J. M., & Keating, C. F. (2004). Gender differences in preschool aggression during free play and structured interactions: An observational study. Social Development, 13, 255275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pardini, D. A. (2006). The callousness pathway to severe violent delinquency. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pardini, D. A., Lochman, J. E., & Frick, P. J. (2003). Callous/unemotional traits and social–cognitive processes in adjudicated youths. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 364371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pardini, D. A., Lochman, J. E., & Powell, N. (2007). The development of callous–unemotional traits and antisocial behavior in children: Are there shared and/or unique predictors? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 319333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patrick, C. J. (in press). The construct of psychopathy. In Lynam, D. R. & Salekin, R. T. (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent psychopathy. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J. (2007). Getting to the heart of psychopathy. In Herves, H. & Yuille, J. C. (Eds.), The psychopathy: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 207252). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1996). Performance models for antisocial boys. American Psychologist, 41, 432444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, G. R., & Yoerger, K. (1997). A developmental model for late-onset delinquency. In Osgood, D. W. (Ed.), Motivation and delinquency (pp. 119177). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Piquero, A. (2001). Testing Moffitt's neuropsychological variation hypothesis for the prediction of life-course persistent offending. Psychology, Crime, and Law, 7, 193215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitts, T. B. (1997). Reduced heart rate levels in aggressive children. In Raine, A., Brennan, P. A., Farrington, D. P., & Mednick, S. A. (Eds.), Biosocial bases of violence (pp. 317320). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R., DeFries, J., McClearn, G., & McGuffin, P. (2008). Behavioral genetics (5th ed.). New York: Worth.Google Scholar
Plomin, R., Owen, M. J., & McGuffin, P. (1994). The genetic basis of complex human behaviors. Science, 264, 17331739.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porter, S., & Woodworth, M. (2006). Psychopathy and aggression. In Patrick, C. J. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 481494). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Raine, A., & Yang, Y. (2006). Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 1, 203213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A., Yaralian, P. S., Reynolds, C., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (2002). Spatial but not verbal cognitive deficits at age 3 years in persistently antisocial individuals. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 2544.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rende, R., & Waldman, I. (2006). Behavioral and molecular genetics and developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (Vol. 2, 2nd ed., pp. 427464). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rhee, S. H., & Waldman, I. D. (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 490529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richters, J. E., & Cicchetti, D. (1993). Mark Twain meets DSM-III-R: Conduct disorder, development, and the concept of harmful dysfunction. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 529.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robins, L. N. (1966). Deviant children grown up. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N. (1978). Aetiological implications in studies of childhood histories related to antisocial personality. In Hare, R. D. & Schalling, D. (Eds.), Psychopathic behavior: Approaches to research (pp. 255271). Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., & Hershey, K. (1994). Temperament and social behavior in childhood. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 40, 2139.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. In Damon, W. & Eisenberg, N. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 105176). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Salekin, R. T. (2008). Psychopathy and recidivism form mid-adolescence to young adulthood: Cumulating legal problems and limiting life opportunities. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 386395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seagrave, D., & Grisso, T. (2002). Adolescent development and the measurement of juvenile psychopathy. Law and Human Behavior, 26, 219239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shin, J. C., Chen, K., & Ridd, M. J. (1999). Monoamine oxidase: From genes to behavior. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 22, 197217.Google Scholar
Silberg, J. L., Rutter, M., Tracy, K., Maes, H. H., & Eaves, L. (2007). Etiological heterogeneity in the development of antisocial behavior: The Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development and the Young Adult Follow-Up. Psychological Medicine, 37, 11931202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverthorn, P., & Frick, P. J. (1999). Developmental pathways to antisocial behavior: The delayed-onset pathway in girls. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 101126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silverthorn, P., Frick, P. J., & Reynolds, R. (2001). Timing of onset ad correlates of severe conduct problems in adjudicated girls and boys. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23, 171181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slutske, W. S., Heath, A. C., Dinwiddie, S. H., Madden, P. A., Bucholz, K. K., Dunne, M. P., et al. (1997). Modeling genetic and environmental influences in the etiology of conduct disorder: A study of 2,682 adult twin pairs. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 266279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snyder, J., Schrepferman, L., McEachern, A., Barner, S., Johnson, K., & Provines, J. (2008). Peer deviancy training and peer coercion: Dual processes associated with early-onset conduct problems. Child Development, 79, 252268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stadler, C., Sterzer, P., Schmeck, K., Krebs, A., Kleinschmidt, A., & Poustka, F. (2007). Reduced anterior cingulate activation in aggressive children and adolescents during affective stimulation: association with temperament traits. Journal of Psychiatry Research, 41, 410417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sterzer, P., Stadler, C., Krebs, A., Kleinschmidt, A., & Poutska, F. (2005). Abnormal neural responses to emotional visual stimuli in adolescents with conduct disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, J., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2000). Evidence for a genetic etiology of early-onset delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 634643.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, J., Loney, B. R., Bobadilla, L., lacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2003). Genetic and environmental influences on psychopathy trait dimensions in a community sample of male twins. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 3, 633645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vasay, M. W., Kotov, R., Frick, P. J., & Loney, B. R. (2005). The latent structure of psychopathy in youth: A taxometric investigation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 411429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhulst, F. C., Koot, H. M., & Berden, G. F. (1990). Four-year follow-up of an epidemiological sample. Journal of American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 440448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Viding, E., Blair, R. J. R., Moffitt, T. E., & Plomin, R. (2005). Evidence for substantial genetic risk for psychopathy in 7-year-olds. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 592597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Viding, E., & Frith, U. (2006). Genes for violence lurk in the brain. Commentary. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 60856086.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Viding, E., Frick, P. J., & Plomin, R. (2007). Aetiology of the relationship between callous–unemotional traits and conduct problems in childhood. British Journal of Psychiatry, 49, s33s38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Viding, E., & Jones, A. P. (2008). Cognition to genes via the brain in the study of conduct disorder. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61, 171181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Viding, E., Jones, A. P., Frick, P. J., Moffitt, T. E., & Plomin, R. (2008). Heritability of antisocial behaviour at nine-years: Do callous–unemotional traits matter? Developmental Science, 11, 1722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wakefield, J. C. (1992). Disorder as a harmful dysfunction: A conceptual critique of DSM-III-R's definition of mental disorder. Psychological Review, 99, 232247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wakefield, J. C., Pottick, K. J., & Kirk, S. A. (2002). Should the DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder consider social context? American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 380386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waschbusch, D. A., Carrey, N. J., Willoughby, M. T., King, S., & Andrade, B. F. (2007). Effects of methylphenidate and behavior modification on the social and academic behavior of children with disruptive behavior disorders: The moderating role of callous/unemotional traits. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 629644.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waschbusch, D. A., Walsh, T. M., Andrade, B .F., King, S., & Carrey, N. J. (2007). Social problem solving, conduct problems, and callous–unemotional traits in children. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 37, 293305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, N. A., & Piquero, A. R. (2004). A preliminary empirical test of Silverthorn and Frick's delayed-onset pathway in girls using an urban, African-American, US-based sample. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 14, 291309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodward, L. J., Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2002). Romantic relationships of young people with childhood and adolescent onset antisocial behavior problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 231244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zalecki, C. A., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2004). Overt and relational aggression in girls with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 125137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed