Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T08:46:50.084Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Addressing educational inequalities and promoting learning through studies of stress physiology in elementary school students

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2021

Jelena Obradović*
Affiliation:
Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Emma Armstrong-Carter
Affiliation:
Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Dr. Jelena Obradović, Stanford University, 485 Lasuen Mall, Stanford, CA94305; E-mail: [email protected].

Abstract

To be ready to learn, children need to be focused, engaged, and able to bounce back from setbacks. However, many children come to school with heightened or diminished physiological arousal due to exposure to poverty-related risks. While stress physiology plays a role in explaining how adversity relates to processes that support students’ cognitive development, there is a lack of studies of physiological stress response in educational settings. This review integrates relevant studies and offers future directions for research on the role of stress physiology in the school adaptation of elementary school students, focusing on these important questions: (a) What are the links between physiological stress response and learning-related skills and behaviors, and do they vary as a function of proximal and distal experiences outside of school? (b) How are school experiences associated with students’ physiological stress response and related cognitive and behavioral adaptations? (c) How can we leverage measures of students’ physiological stress response in evaluations of school-based interventions to better support the school success of every student? We hope to stimulate a new wave of research that will advance the science of developmental stress physiology, as well as improve the application of these findings in educational policy and practice.

Type
Special Section 2: Early Adversity and Development: Contributions from the Field
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adam, E. K., Quinn, M. E., Tavernier, R., McQuillan, M. T., Dahlke, K. A., & Gilbert, K. E. (2017). Diurnal cortisol slopes and mental and physical health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 83, 2541. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.05.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armstrong-Carter, E., Ivory, S., Lin, L. C., Muscatell, K. A., & Telzer, E. H. (2020). Role fulfillment mediates the association between daily family assistance and cortisol awakening response in adolescents. Child Development, 91(3), 754768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badanes, L. S., Dmitrieva, J., & Watamura, S. E. (2012). Understanding cortisol reactivity across the day at child care: The potential buffering role of secure attachments to caregivers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27, 156165. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.05.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakosh, L. S., Snow, R. M., Tobias, J. M., Houlihan, J. L., & Barbosa-Leiker, C. (2016). Maximizing mindful learning: Mindful awareness intervention improves elementary school students’ quarterly grades. Mindfulness, 7, 5967. doi:10.1007/s12671-015-0387-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, R., Salsberry, P., & Ford, J. (2017). Measuring stress in young children using hair cortisol: The state of the science. Biological Research for Nursing, 19, 499510. doi:10.1177/1099800417711583CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Becker, D. R., Carrère, S., Siler, C., Jones, S., Bowie, B., & Cooke, C. (2012). Autonomic regulation on the stroop predicts reading achievement in school age children. Mind, Brain, and Education, 6, 1018. doi:10.1111/j.1751-228X.2011.01130.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benner, A. D., Wang, Y., Shen, Y., Boyle, A. E., Polk, R., & Cheng, Y.-P. (2018). Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. American Psychologist, 73, 855883. doi:10.1037/amp0000204CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernard, K., Peloso, E., Laurenceau, J.-P., Zhang, Z., & Dozier, M. (2015). Examining change in cortisol patterns during the 10-week transition to a new child-care setting. Child Development, 86, 456471. doi:10.1111/cdev.12304CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berry, D., Blair, C., Granger, D. A., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2016). Child care and cortisol across infancy and toddlerhood: Poverty, peers, and developmental timing. Family Relations, 65, 5172. doi:10.1111/fare.12184CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Best, J. R. (2010). Effects of physical activity on children's executive function: Contributions of experimental research on aerobic exercise. Developmental Review, 30, 331351. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2010.08.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Black, D. S., & Fernando, R. (2014). Mindfulness training and classroom behavior among lower-income and ethnic minority elementary school children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23, 12421246. doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9784-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C., Berry, D., & The Family Life Project Investigators, (2017). Moderate within-person variability in cortisol is related to executive function in early childhood. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 81, 8895. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.03.026CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C., Granger, D., & Razza, R. (2005). Cortisol reactivity is positively related to executive function in preschool children attending Head Start. Child Development, 76, 554567. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00863.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C., & Peters, R. (2003). Physiological and neurocognitive correlates of adaptive behavior in preschool among children in Head Start. Developmental Neuropsychology, 42, 479497. doi:10.1207/S15326942DN2401_04CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, C., & Raver, C. (2012). Individual development and evolution: Experiential canalization of self-regulation. Developmental Psychology, 48, 647657. doi:10.1037/a0026472CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C., Raver, C. C., Granger, D., Mills-Koonce, R., Hibel, L., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2011). Allostasis and allostatic load in the context of poverty in early childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 845857. doi:10.1017/S0954579411000344CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bottiani, J. H., Bradshaw, C. P., & Gregory, A. (2018). Nudging the gap: Introduction to the special issue “Closing in on discipline disproportionality.”. School Psychology Review, 47, 109117. doi:10.17105/SPR-2018-0023.V47-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradshaw, C. P., Pas, E. T., Bottiani, J. H., Debnam, K. J., Reinke, W. M., Herman, K. C., & Rosenberg, M. S. (2018). Promoting cultural responsivity and student engagement through double check coaching of classroom teachers: An efficacy study. School Psychology Review, 47, 118134. doi:10.17105/SPR-2017-0119.V47-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brady, S. T., Hard, B. M., & Gross, J. J. (2018). Reappraising test anxiety increases academic performance of first-year college students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110, 395406. doi:10.1037/edu0000219CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brenner, S. L., Beauchaine, T. P., & Sylvers, P. D. (2005). A comparison of psychophysiological and self-report measures of BAS and BIS activation. Psychophysiology, 42, 108115. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2005.00261.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Lei, M. K., Chen, E., & Miller, G. E. (2014). Neighborhood poverty and allostatic load in African American youth. Pediatrics, 134, 13621368. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-1395CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Miller, G. E., Yu, T., Beach, S. R. H., & Chen, E. (2016). Supportive family environments ameliorate the link between racial discrimination and epigenetic aging: A replication across two longitudinal cohorts. Psychological Science, 27, 530541. doi:10.1177/0956797615626703CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, E. D., Garnett, M. L., Anderson, K. E., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2017). Can the arts get under the skin? Arts and cortisol for economically disadvantaged children. Child Development, 88, 13681381. doi:10.1111/cdev.12652CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, C. S., Mistry, R. S., & Yip, T. (2019). Moving from the margins to the mainstream: Equity and justice as key considerations for developmental science. Child Development Perspectives, 13, 235240. doi:10.1111/cdep.12340CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, C. S., & Tam, M. (2019). Ethnic discrimination predicting academic attitudes for Latinx students in middle childhood. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 65, 101061. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101061CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruce, J., Davis, E. P., & Gunnar, M. R. (2002). Individual differences in children's cortisol response to the beginning of a new school year. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27, 635650. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(01)00031-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruce, J., Fisher, P. A., Pears, K. C., & Levine, S. (2009). Morning cortisol levels in preschool-aged foster children: Differential effects of maltreatment type. Developmental Psychobiology, 51, 1423. doi:10.1002/dev.20333CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Budde, H., Voelcker-Rehage, C., Pietrassyk-Kendziorra, S., Machado, S., Ribeiro, P., & Arafat, A. M. (2010). Steroid hormones in the saliva of adolescents after different exercise intensities and their influence on working memory in a school setting. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 382391. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.07.015CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bush, N. R., Obradović, J., Adler, N., & Boyce, W. T. (2011). Kindergarten stressors and cumulative adrenocortical activation: The “first straws” of allostatic load? Development and Psychopathology, 23, 10891106. doi:10.1017/S0954579411000514CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calkins, S. D., Graziano, P. A., & Keane, S. P. (2007). Cardiac vagal regulation differentiates among children at risk for behavior problems. Biological Psychology, 74, 144153. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.09.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, E. P., Donzella, B., Krueger, W. K., & Gunnar, M. R. (1999). The start of a new school year: Individual differences in salivary cortisol response in relation to child temperament. Developmental Psychobiology, 35, 188196. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199911)35:3 < 188::AID-DEV3>3.0.CO;2-K3.0.CO;2-K>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, E. L., & Levine, L. J. (2013). Emotion regulation strategies that promote learning: Reappraisal enhances children's memory for educational information. Child Development, 84, 361374. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01836.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, E. L., Quiñones-Camacho, L. E., & Buss, K. A. (2016). The effects of distraction and reappraisal on children's parasympathetic regulation of sadness and fear. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 142, 344358. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.09.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeCicco, J. M., O'Toole, L. J., & Dennis, T. A. (2014). The late positive potential as a neural signature for cognitive reappraisal in children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 39, 497515. doi:10.1080/87565641.2014.959171CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennis, T. A., Buss, K. A., & Hastings, P. D. (2012). Physiological measures of emotion from a developmental perspective: State of the science. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 77, 15. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2011.00654.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dettling, A. C., Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (1999). Cortisol levels of young children in full-day childcare centers: Relations with age and temperament. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 24, 519536. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(99)00009-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dettling, A. C., Parker, S. W., Lane, S., Sebanc, A., & Gunnar, M. R. (2000). Quality of care and temperament determine changes in cortisol concentrations over the day for young children in childcare. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 819836. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(00)00028-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donnelly, J. E., & Lambourne, K. (2011). Classroom-based physical activity, cognition, and academic achievement. Preventive Medicine, 52, 3642. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dusenbury, L., & Weissberg, R. P. (2017). Social emotional learning in elementary school: Preparation for success. Retrieved from Collaborative for academic, social, and emotional learning (CASEL) website: www.casel.orgGoogle Scholar
El-Sheikh, M., Hinnant, J. B., & Erath, S. (2011). Developmental trajectories of delinquency symptoms in childhood: The role of marital conflict and autonomic nervous system activity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 1632. doi:10.1037/a0020626CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., Kouros, C. D., Erath, S., Cummings, E. M., Keller, P. S., & Staton, L. (2009). Marital conflict and children's externalizing behavior: Pathways involving interactions between parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system activity. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 74, 779. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2009.00501.xGoogle Scholar
El-Sheikh, M., Philbrook, L. E., Kelly, R. J., Hinnant, J. B., & Buckhalt, J. A. (2019). What does a good night's sleep mean? Nonlinear relations between sleep and children's cognitive functioning and mental health. Sleep, 42, 115. doi:10.1093/sleep/zsz078Google ScholarPubMed
Ellis, B. J., Boyce, W. T., Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to the environment: An evolutionary-neurodevelopmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 723. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000611CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erath, S. A., Bub, K. L., & Tu, K. M. (2016). Responses to peer stress predict academic outcomes across the transition to middle school. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 36, 528. doi:10.1177/0272431614556350CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, G. W., & Fuller-Rowell, T. E. (2013). Childhood poverty, chronic stress, and young adult working memory: The protective role of self-regulatory capacity. Developmental Science, 16, 688696. doi:10.1111/desc.12082CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, G. W., & Schamberg, M. A. (2009). Childhood poverty, chronic stress, and adult working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 65456549. doi:10.1073/pnas.0811910106CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farah, M. J. (2017). The neuroscience of socioeconomic status: Correlates, causes, and consequences. Neuron, 96, 5671. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.08.034CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fishbein, D., Miller, S., Herman-Stahl, M., Williams, J., Lavery, B., Markovitz, L., … Johnson, M. (2016). Behavioral and psychophysiological effects of a yoga intervention on high-risk adolescents: A randomized control trial. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25, 518529. doi:10.1007/s10826-015-0231-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuhs, M. W., Nesbitt, K. T., Farran, D. C., & Dong, N. (2014). Longitudinal associations between executive functioning and academic skills across content areas. Developmental Psychology, 50, 16981709. doi:10.1037/a0036633CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallo, L. C., Roesch, S. C., Bravin, J. I., Savin, K. L., Perreira, K. M., Carnethon, M. R., … Isasi, C. R. (2019). Socioeconomic adversity, social resources, and allostatic load among Hispanic/Latino youth: The study of Latino youth. Psychosomatic Medicine, 81, 305312. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000668CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garcia, E. B., Sulik, M. J., & Obradović, J. (2019). Teachers’ perceptions of students’ executive functions: Disparities by gender, ethnicity, and ELL status. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111, 918931. doi:10.1037/edu0000308CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gates, K. M., Gatzke-Kopp, L. M., Sandsten, M., & Blandon, A. Y. (2015). Estimating time-varying RSA to examine psychophysiological linkage of marital dyads. Psychophysiology, 52, 10591065. doi:10.1111/psyp.12428CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gentzler, A. L., Santucci, A. K., Kovacs, M., & Fox, N. A. (2009). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia predicts emotion regulation and depressive symptoms in at-risk and control children. Biological Psychology, 82, 156163. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.07.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerber, M., Endes, K., Brand, S., Herrmann, C., Colledge, F., Donath, L., … Zahner, L. (2017). In 6- to 8-year-old children, hair cortisol is associated with body mass index and somatic complaints, but not with stress, health-related quality of life, blood pressure, retinal vessel diameters, and cardiorespiratory fitness. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 76, 110. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.11.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geršak, V., Vitulić, H. S., Prosen, S., Starc, G., Humar, I., & Geršak, G. (2020). Use of wearable devices to study activity of children in classroom; Case study–Learning geometry using movement. Computer Communications, 150, 581588. doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2019.12.019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilissen, R., Koolstra, C. M., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van der Veer, R. (2007). Physiological reactions of preschoolers to fear-inducing film clips: Effects of temperamental fearfulness and quality of the parent–child relationship. Developmental Psychobiology, 49, 187195.10.1002/dev.20188CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giuliano, R. J., Karns, C. M., Roos, L. E., Bell, T. A., Petersen, S., Skowron, E. A., … Pakulak, E. (2018). Effects of early adversity on neural mechanisms of distractor suppression are mediated by sympathetic nervous system activity in preschool-aged children. Developmental Psychology, 54, 16741686. doi:10.1037/dev0000499CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., El-Sheikh, M., Gordis, E. B., & Stroud, L. R. (2007). Salivary alpha-amylase in biobehavioral research: Recent developments and applications. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1098, 122144. doi:10.1196/annals.1384.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graves, K. Y., & Nowakowski, A. C. H. (2017). Childhood socioeconomic status and stress in late adulthood: A longitudinal approach to measuring allostatic load. Global Pediatric Health, 4, 112. doi:10.1177/2333794X17744950CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graziano, P., & Derefinko, K. (2013). Cardiac vagal control and children's adaptive functioning: A meta-analysis. Biological Psychology, 94, 2237. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.04.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, A., & Fergus, E. (2017). Social and emotional learning and equity in school discipline. The Future of Children, 27, 117136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregoski, M. J., Barnes, V. A., Tingen, M. S., Harshfield, G. A., & Treiber, F. A. (2011). Breathing awareness meditation and life skills training programs influence upon ambulatory blood pressure and sodium excretion among African American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48, 5964. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.05.019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Doom, J. R., & Esposito, E. A.. (2015). Psychoneuroendocrinology of stress: Normative development and individual differences. In Lerner, R. M., & Lamb, M. E. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science, socioemotional processes (Vol. 3, pp. 106151). Somerset, NJ: John Wiley & Sons IncGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Kryzer, E., Van Ryzin, M. J., & Phillips, D. A. (2010). The rise in cortisol in family day care: Associations with aspects of care quality, child behavior, and child sex. Child Development, 81, 851869. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01438.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hackman, D. A., Gallop, R., Evans, G. W., & Farah, M. J. (2015). Socioeconomic status and executive function: Developmental trajectories and mediation. Developmental Science, 18, 686702. doi:10.1111/desc.12246CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, J., & Lindorff, A. (2017). Children's transition to school: Relationships between preschool attendance, cortisol patterns, and effortful control. The Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 34, 118. doi:10.1017/edp.2017.3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastings, P. D., Sullivan, C., McShane, K. E., Coplan, R. J., Utendale, W. T., & Vyncke, J. D. (2008). Parental socialization, vagal regulation, and preschoolers’ anxious difficulties: Direct mothers and moderated fathers. Child Development, 79, 4564. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01110.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hatfield, B. E., Hestenes, L. L., Kintner-Duffy, V. L., & O'Brien, M. (2013). Classroom emotional support predicts differences in preschool children's cortisol and alpha-amylase levels. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28, 347356. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.08.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatfield, B. E., & Williford, A. P. (2017). Cortisol patterns for young children displaying disruptive behavior: Links to a teacher-child, relationship-focused intervention. Prevention Science, 18, 4049. doi:10.1007/s11121-016-0693-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heissel, J. A., Adam, E. K., Doleac, J. L., Figlio, D. N., & Meer, J. (2019). Testing, stress, and performance: How students respond physiologically to high-stakes testing. Education Finance and Policy, 3, 150. doi:10.1162/edfp_a_00306.Google Scholar
Heissel, J. A., Levy, D. J., & Adam, E. K. (2017). Stress, sleep, and performance on standardized tests: Understudied pathways to the achievement gap. AERA Open, 3, 117. doi:10.1177/2332858417713488CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heissel, J. A., Sharkey, P. T., Torrats-Espinosa, G., Grant, K., & Adam, E. K. (2018). Violence and vigilance: The acute effects of community violent crime on sleep and cortisol. Child Development, 89, 323331. doi:10.1111/cdev.12889CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinnant, J. B., & El-Sheikh, M. (2013). Codevelopment of externalizing and internalizing symptoms in middle to late childhood: Sex, baseline respiratory sinus arrhythmia, and respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity as predictors. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 419436. doi:10.1017/S0954579412001150CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinnant, J. B., El-Sheikh, M., Keiley, M., & Buckhalt, J. A. (2013). Marital conflict, allostatic load, and the development of children's fluid cognitive performance. Child Development, 84, 20032014. doi:10.1111/cdev.12103CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinnant, J. B., Philbrook, L. E., Erath, S. A., & El-Sheikh, M. (2018). Approaches to modeling the development of physiological stress responsivity. Psychophysiology, 55, e13027. doi:10.1111/psyp.13027CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hostinar, C. E., & Miller, G. E. (2019). Protective factors for youth confronting economic hardship: Current challenges and future avenues in resilience research. American Psychologist, 74, 641652. doi:10.1037/amp0000520CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, A. L., Minnis, H., & Wilson, P. (2011). Altered stress responses in children exposed to early adversity: A systematic review of salivary cortisol studies. Stress, 14, 614626. doi:10.3109/10253890.2011.577848CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jamieson, J. P., Mendes, W. B., Blackstock, E., & Schmader, T. (2010). Turning the knots in your stomach into bows: Reappraising arousal improves performance on the GRE. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 208212. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.08.015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jamieson, J. P., Nock, M. K., & Mendes, W. B. (2012). Mind over matter: Reappraising arousal improves cardiovascular and cognitive responses to stress. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141, 417422. doi:10.1037/a0025719CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, A. E., Perry, N. B., Hostinar, C. E., & Gunnar, M. R. (2019). Cognitive–affective strategies and cortisol stress reactivity in children and adolescents: Normative development and effects of early life stress. Developmental Psychobiology, 61, 9991013. doi:10.1002/dev.21849CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahle, S., Miller, J. G., Helm, J. L., & Hastings, P. D. (2018). Linking autonomic physiology and emotion regulation in preschoolers: The role of reactivity and recovery. Developmental Psychobiology, 60, 775788. doi:10.1002/dev.21746CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalvin, C. B., Bierman, K. L., & Gatzke-Kopp, L. M. (2016). Emotional reactivity, behavior problems, and social adjustment at school entry in a high-risk sample. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44, 15271541. doi:10.1007/s10802-016-0139-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keller, P. S., El-Sheikh, M., Granger, D. A., & Buckhalt, J. A. (2012). Interactions between salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase as predictors of children's cognitive functioning and academic performance. Physiology & Behavior, 105, 987995. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.11.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, P., Evans, G. W., Angstadt, M., Ho, S. S., Sripada, C. S., Swain, J. E., … Phan, K. L. (2013). Effects of childhood poverty and chronic stress on emotion regulatory brain function in adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 1844218447. doi:10.1073/pnas.1308240110CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kliewer, W. (2006). Violence exposure and cortisol responses in urban youth. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 13, 109120. doi:10.1207/s15327558ijbm1302_2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lafko, N., Murray-Close, D., & Shoulberg, E. K. (2015). Negative peer status and relational victimization in children and adolescents: The role of stress physiology. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44, 405416. doi:10.1080/15374416.2013.850701CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambe, L. J., Craig, W. M., & Hollenstein, T. (2019). Blunted physiological stress reactivity among youth with a history of bullying and victimization: Links to depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47, 19811993. doi:10.1007/s10802-019-00565-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laurito, A., Lacoe, J., Schwartz, A. L., Sharkey, P., & Ellen, I. G. (2019). School climate and the impact of neighborhood crime on test scores. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 5, 141166. doi:10.7758/rsf.2019.5.2.08CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, H. Y., Jamieson, J. P., Miu, A. S., Josephs, R. A., & Yeager, D. S. (2019). An entity theory of intelligence predicts higher cortisol levels when high school grades are declining. Child Development, 90, 849867. doi:10.1111/cdev.13116CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lisonbee, J. A., Mize, J., Payne, A. L., & Granger, D. A. (2008). Children's cortisol and the quality of teacher-child relationships in child care. Child Development, 79, 18181832. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01228.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
London, R. (2019). The right to play: Eliminating the opportunity gap in elementary school recess. Phi Delta Kappan, 101, 4852. doi:org/10.1177/0031721719885921CrossRefGoogle Scholar
London, R. A., Westrich, L., Stokes-Guinan, K., & McLaughlin, M. (2015). Playing fair: The contribution of high-functioning recess to overall school climate in low-income elementary schools. Journal of School Health, 85, 5360. doi:10.1111/josh.12216CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorber, M. F. (2004). Psychophysiology of aggression, psychopathy, and conduct problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 531552. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.531CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 434445. doi:10.1038/nrn2639CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malanchini, M., Engelhardt, L. E., Raffington, L. A., Sabhlok, A., Grotzinger, A. D., Briley, D. A., … Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020). Weak and uneven associations of home, neighborhood, and school environments with stress hormone output across multiple timescales. Molecular Psychiatry, 117(6), 11641188. doi:10.1038/s41380-020-0747-z.Google Scholar
Mani, A., Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E., & Zhao, J. (2013). Poverty impedes cognitive function. Science, 341, 976980. doi:10.1126/science.1238041CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marcovitch, S., Leigh, J., Calkins, S. D., Leerks, E. M., O'Brien, M., & Blankson, A. N. (2010). Moderate vagal withdrawal in 3.5-year-old children is associated with optimal performance on executive function tasks. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 603608. doi:10.1002/dev.20462CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCoy, D. C., Raver, C. C., & Sharkey, P. (2015). Children's cognitive performance and selective attention following recent community violence. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 56, 1936. doi:10.1177/0022146514567576CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S. (1998). Stress, adaptation, and disease: Allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 840, 3344. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09546.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Alves, S., & Sheridan, M. A. (2014). Vagal regulation and internalizing psychopathology among adolescents exposed to childhood adversity: Vagal regulation and stress vulnerability. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 10361051. doi:10.1002/dev.21187CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merz, E. C., Wiltshire, C. A., & Noble, K. G. (2019). Socioeconomic inequality and the developing brain: Spotlight on language and executive function. Child Development Perspectives, 13, 1520. doi:10.1111/cdep.12305CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miles, E. M., Dmitrieva, J., Hurwich-Reiss, E., Badanes, L., Mendoza, M. M., Perreira, K. M., … Watamura, S. E. (2018). Evidence for a physiologic home–school gap in children of Latina immigrants. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 52, 86100. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.03.010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray-Close, D. (2013). Psychophysiology of adolescent peer relations I: Theory and research findings. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 23, 236259. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00828.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oberle, E. (2018). Social-emotional competence and early adolescents’ peer acceptance in school: Examining the role of afternoon cortisol. Plos One, 13. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0192639CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oberle, E., McLachlan, K., Catherine, N. L. A., Brain, U., Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Weinberg, J., & Oberlander, T. F. (2017). Afternoon cortisol provides a link between self-regulated anger and peer-reported aggression in typically developing children in the school context. Developmental Psychobiology, 59, 688695. doi:10.1002/dev.21522CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oberle, E., & Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2016). Stress contagion in the classroom? The link between classroom teacher burnout and morning cortisol in elementary school students. Social Science & Medicine, 159, 3037. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.04.031CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obradović, J. (2012). How can the study of physiological reactivity contribute to our understanding of adversity and resilience processes in development? Development and Psychopathology, 24, 371387. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000053CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obradović, J. (2016). Physiological responsivity and executive functioning: Implications for adaptation and resilience in early childhood. Child Development Perspectives, 10, 6570. doi:10.1111/cdep.12164CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obradović, J., & Boyce, T. (2011). Physiological reactivity moderates the effects of social hierarchy position on adaptation of kindergarten children. Presented at the Biannual meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Montreal, Canada.Google Scholar
Obradović, J., & Boyce, W. T. (2009). Individual differences in behavioral, physiological, and genetic sensitivities to contexts: Implications for development and adaptation. Developmental Neuroscience, 31, 300308. doi:10.1159/000216541Google ScholarPubMed
Obradović, J., & Boyce, W. T. (2012). Stress reactivity in child development research. In Mayes, L., & Lewis, M. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of environment in human development (pp. 655681). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press..CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obradović, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Adler, N. E., & Boyce, W. T. (2010). Biological sensitivity to context: The interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Development, 81, 270289. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01394.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obradović, J., Portilla, X. A., & Ballard, P. J. (2016). Biological sensitivity to family income: Differential effects on early executive functioning. Child Development, 87, 374384. doi:10.1111/cdev.12475CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Okonofua, J. A., Walton, G. M., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2016). A vicious cycle: A social–psychological account of extreme racial disparities in school discipline. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 381398. doi:10.1177/1745691616635592CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ouellet-Morin, I., Odgers, C. L., Danese, A., Bowes, L., Shakoor, S., Papadopoulos, A. S., … Arseneault, L. (2011). Blunted cortisol responses to stress signal social and behavioral problems among maltreated/bullied 12-year-old children. Biological Psychiatry, 70, 10161023. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.06.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Overstreet, S., & Chafouleas, S. M. (2016). Trauma-informed schools: Introduction to the special issue. School Mental Health, 8, 16. doi:10.1007/s12310-016-9184-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owen, K. B., Parker, P. D., Van Zanden, B., MacMillan, F., Astell-Burt, T., & Lonsdale, C. (2016). Physical activity and school engagement in youth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Educational Psychologist, 51, 129145. doi:10.1080/00461520.2016.1151793CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, F. B., Anand, K. J. S., Graff, J. C., Murphy, L. E., Qu, Y., Völgyi, E., … Tylavsky, F. A. (2013). Early adversity, socioemotional development, and stress in urban 1-year-old children. The Journal of Pediatrics, 163, 17331739. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.08.030CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parent, S., Lupien, S., Herba, C. M., Dupéré, V., Gunnar, M. R., & Séguin, J. R. (2019). Children's cortisol response to the transition from preschool to formal schooling: A review. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 99, 196205. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.09.013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parlak, O., Keene, S. T., Marais, A., Curto, V. F., & Salleo, A. (2018). Molecularly selective nanoporous membrane-based wearable organic electrochemical device for noninvasive cortisol sensing. Science Advances, 4, 28882904. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aar2904CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pascoe, M. C., Thompson, D. R., & Ski, C. F. (2017). Yoga, mindfulness-based stress reduction and stress-related physiological measures: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 86, 152168. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017. 08.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Payne, L. A., Hibel, L. C., Granger, D., Tsao, J., & Zeltzer, L. (2014). Relationship of salivary alpha amylase and cortisol to social anxiety in healthy children undergoing laboratory pain tasks. Journal of Child and Adolescent Behaviour, 2, 112. doi:10.4172/2375-4494.1000129CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Philbrook, L. E., Buckhalt, J. A., & El-Sheikh, M. (2019). Community violence concerns and adolescent sleep: Physiological regulation and race as moderators. Journal of Sleep Research, 29, e12897. doi:10.1111/jsr.12897.Google ScholarPubMed
Philbrook, L. E., Shimizu, M., Buckhalt, J. A., & El-Sheikh, M. (2018). Sleepiness as a pathway linking race and socioeconomic status with academic and cognitive outcomes in middle childhood. Sleep Health, 4, 405412. doi:10.1016/j.sleh.2018.07.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piccolo, L. D. R., Sbicigo, J. B., Grassi-Oliveira, R., & Fumagalli de Salles, J. (2014). Do socioeconomic status and stress reactivity really impact neurocognitive performance? Psychology & Neuroscience, 7, 567575. doi:10.3922/j.psns.2014.4.16CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74, 116143. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Portilla, X. A., Ballard, P. J., Adler, N. E., Boyce, W. T., & Obradović, J. (2014). An integrative view of school functioning: Transactions between self-regulation, school engagement, and teacher-child relationship quality. Child Development, 85, 19151931. doi:10.1111/cdev.12259Google ScholarPubMed
Quas, J. A., Bauer, A., & Boyce, W. T. (2004). Physiological reactivity, social support, and memory in early childhood. Child Development, 75, 797814. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00707.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quas, J. A., Carrick, N., Alkon, A., Goldstein, L., & Boyce, W. T. (2006). Children's memory for a mild stressor: The role of sympathetic activation and parasympathetic withdrawal. Developmental Psychobiology, 48, 686702. doi:10.1002/dev.20184CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raffington, L., Schmiedek, F., Heim, C., & Shing, Y. L. (2018). Cognitive control moderates parenting stress effects on children's diurnal cortisol. PLoS One, 13, 191215. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0191215CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raver, C. C., Blair, C., & Willoughby, M. T. (2013). Poverty as a predictor of 4-year-olds’ executive function: New perspectives on models of differential susceptibility. Developmental Psychology, 49, 292304. doi:10.1037/a0028343CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reardon. (2019). Educational opportunity in early and middle childhood: Using full population administrative data to study variation by place and age. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, 5, 4068. doi:10.7758/rsf.2019.5.2.03CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rippe, R. C. A., Noppe, G., Windhorst, D. A., Tiemeier, H., van Rossum, E. F. C., Jaddoe, V. W. V., … van den Akker, E. L. T. (2016). Splitting hair for cortisol? Associations of socio-economic status, ethnicity, hair color, gender and other child characteristics with hair cortisol and cortisone. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 66, 5664. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.12.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rocque, M. (2010). Office discipline and student behavior: Does race matter? American Journal of Education, 116, 557581. doi:10.1086/653629CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roubinov, D. S., Hagan, M. J., Boyce, W. T., Essex, M. J., & Bush, N. R. (2017). Child temperament and teacher relationship interactively predict cortisol expression: The prism of classroom climate. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 17631775. doi:10.1017/S0954579417001389CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Oberle, E., Lawlor, M. S., Abbott, D., Thomson, K., Oberlander, T. F., & Diamond, A. (2015). Enhancing cognitive and social–emotional development through a simple-to-administer mindfulness-based school program for elementary school children: A randomized controlled trial. Developmental Psychology, 51, 5266. doi:10.1037/a0038454CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharkey, P. (2010). The acute effect of local homicides on children's cognitive performance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 1173311738. doi:10.1073/pnas.1000690107CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharkey, P., Schwartz, A. E., Ellen, I. G., & Lacoe, J. (2014). High stakes in the classroom, high stakes on the street: The effects of community violence on student's standardized test performance. Sociological Science, 1, 199220. doi:10.15195/v1.a14CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharkey, P. T., Tirado-Strayer, N., Papachristos, A. V., & Raver, C. C. (2012). The effect of local violence on children's attention and impulse control. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 22872293. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.300789CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sibinga, E. M. S., Webb, L., Ghazarian, S. R., & Ellen, J. M. (2016). School-based mindfulness instruction: An RCT. Pediatrics, 137, 20152532. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-2532CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skowron, E. A., Cipriano-Essel, E., Gatzke-Kopp, L. M., Teti, D. M., & Ammerman, R. T. (2014). Early adversity, RSA, and inhibitory control: Evidence of children's neurobiological sensitivity to social context. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 964978. doi:10.1002/dev.21175CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slopen, N., McLaughlin, K. A., & Shonkoff, J. P. (2014). Interventions to improve cortisol regulation in children: A systematic review. Pediatrics, 133, 312326. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-1632CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., Hentges, R. F., & Coe, J. L. (2016). Family instability and children's effortful control in the context of poverty: Sometimes a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 112. doi:10.1017/S0954579416000407Google Scholar
Suor, J. H., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., & Manning, L. G. (2015). Tracing differential pathways of risk: Associations among family adversity, cortisol, and cognitive functioning in childhood. Child Development, 86, 11421158. doi:10.1111/cdev.12376CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarullo, A. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2006). Child maltreatment and the developing HPA axis. Hormones and Behavior, 50, 632639. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarullo, A. R., Mliner, S., & Gunnar, M. R. (2011). Inhibition and exuberance in preschool classrooms: Associations with peer social experiences and changes in cortisol across the preschool year. Developmental Psychology, 47, 13741388. doi:10.1037/a0024093CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tenenbaum, H. R., & Ruck, M. D. (2007). Are teachers’ expectations different for racial minority than for European American students? A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 253273. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.253CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tine, M. T., & Butler, A. G. (2012). Acute aerobic exercise impacts selective attention: An exceptional boost in lower-income children. Educational Psychology, 32, 821834. doi:10.1080/01443410.2012.723612CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tout, K., de Haan, M., Campbell, E. K., & Gunnar, M. R. (1998). Social behavior correlates of cortisol activity in child care: Gender differences and time-of-day effects. Child Development, 69, 1247. doi:10.2307/1132263CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner-Cobb, J. M., Rixon, L., & Jessop, D. S. (2008). A prospective study of diurnal cortisol responses to the social experience of school transition in four-year-old children: Anticipation, exposure, and adaptation. Developmental Psychobiology: The Journal of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 377389. doi:10.1002/dev.20298CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ursache, A., Merz, E. C., Melvin, S., Meyer, J., & Noble, K. G. (2017). Socioeconomic status, hair cortisol and internalizing symptoms in parents and children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 78, 142150. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.01.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaghri, Z., Guhn, M., Weinberg, J., Grunau, R. E., Yu, W., & Hertzman, C. (2013). Hair cortisol reflects socio-economic factors and hair zinc in preschoolers. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38, 331340. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.06.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaillancourt, T., Hymel, S., & McDougall, P. (2013). The biological underpinnings of peer victimization: Understanding why and how the effects of bullying can last a lifetime. Theory into Practice, 52, 241248. doi:10.1080/00405841.2013.829726CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van de Weijer-Bergsma, E., Langenberg, G., Brandsma, R., Oort, F. J., & Bögels, S. M. (2012). The effectiveness of a school-based mindfulness training as a program to prevent stress in elementary school children. Mindfulness, 5, 238248. doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0171-9Google Scholar
Vliegenthart, J., Noppe, G., van Rossum, E. F. C., Koper, J. W., Raat, H., & van den Akker, E. L. T. (2016). Socioeconomic status in children is associated with hair cortisol levels as a biological measure of chronic stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 65, 914. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.11.022CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, S. L., Cepeda, I., Krieger, D., Maggi, S., D'Angiulli, A., Weinberg, J., & Grunau, R. E. (2016). Higher cortisol is associated with poorer executive functioning in preschool children: The role of parenting stress, parent coping and quality of daycare. Child Neuropsychology, 22, 853869. doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1080232CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watamura, S. E., Kryzer, E. M., & Robertson, S. S. (2009). Cortisol patterns at home and child care: Afternoon differences and evening recovery in children attending very high quality full-day center-based child care. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 475485. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.027CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, D. K., Kliewer, W., Plybon, L., & Sica, D. A. (2000). Socioeconomic status and blood pressure reactivity in healthy black adolescents. Hypertension, 35, 496500. doi:10.1161/01.HYP.35.1.496CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, P.-J., Lamb, M. E., Kappler, G., & Ahnert, L. (2017). Children's diurnal cortisol activity during the first year of school. Applied Developmental Science, 21, 3041.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, J. C., Mun, J., Kwon, S. Y., Park, S., Bao, Z., & Park, S. (2019). Electronic skin: Recent progress and future prospects for skin-attachable devices for health monitoring, robotics, and prosthetics. Advanced Materials, 31, 150. doi:10.1002/adma.201904765Google ScholarPubMed
Yip, T., Cham, H., Wang, Y., & El-Sheikh, M. (2020). Discrimination and sleep mediate ethnic/racial identity and adolescent adjustment: Uncovering change processes with slope-as-mediator mediation. Child Development, 91(3), 10211043. https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/cdev.13276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zelazo, P. D., Forston, J. L., Masten, A. S., & Carlson, S. M. (2018). Mindfulness plus reflection training: Effects on executive function in early childhood. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 208. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00208CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zimmermann, C. R. (2018). The penalty of being a young black girl: Kindergarten teachers’ perceptions of children's problem behaviors and student–teacher conflict by the intersection of Race and Gender. The Journal of Negro Education, 87, 154168. doi:10.7709/jnegroeducation.87.2.0154CrossRefGoogle Scholar