Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T22:01:23.223Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Testing multiple levels of influence in the intergenerational transmission of alcohol disorders from a developmental perspective: The example of alcohol use promoting peers and μ-opioid receptor M1 variation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 July 2012

Laurie Chassin ,
Matthew R. Lee ,
Young Il Cho ,
Frances L. Wang ,
Arpana Agrawal ,
Kenneth J. Sher  and
Michael T. Lynskey
Laurie Chassin*
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Matthew R. Lee
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Young Il Cho
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Frances L. Wang
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Arpana Agrawal
Affiliation:
Washington University School of Medicine
Kenneth J. Sher
Affiliation:
University of Missouri–Columbia
Michael T. Lynskey
Affiliation:
Washington University School of Medicine
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Laurie Chassin, Psychology Department, Box 871104, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-1104; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study examined the interplay between the influence of peers who promote alcohol use and μ-opioid receptor M1 (OPRM1) genetic variation in the intergenerational transmission of alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptoms while separating the “traitlike” components of AUD symptoms from their age-specific manifestations at three ages from emerging adulthood (17–23 years) to adulthood (29–40 years). The results for males were consistent with genetically influenced peer selection mechanisms as mediators of parent alcoholism effects. Male children of alcoholics were less likely to be carriers of the G allele in single nucleotide polymorphism A118G (rs1799971), and those who were homozygous for the A allele were more likely to affiliate with alcohol use promoting peers who increased the risk for AUD symptoms at all ages. There was evidence for women of an interaction between OPRM1 variation and peer affiliations but only at the earliest age band. Peer influences had stronger effects among women who were G-carriers. These results illustrate the complex ways in which the interplay between influences at multiple levels of analysis can underlie the intergenerational transmission of alcohol disorders as well as the importance of considering age and gender differences in these pathways.

Type
Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 24 , Issue 3: Multilevel Approaches Toward Understanding Antisocial Behavior: Current Research and Future Directions , August 2012 , pp. 953 - 967
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agrawal, A., Balasubramanian, S., Smith, E., Madden, P., Bucholz, K., Heath, A., et al. (2010). Peer substance involvement modifies genetic influences on regular substance involvement in young women. Addiction, 105, 1844–1853.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (2010). Proposed revision to alcohol-use disorder. Retrieved from http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevisions/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid=452Google Scholar
Barr, C. S., Schwandt, M. L., Lindell, S. G., Higley, J. D., Maestripieri, D., Goldman, D., et al. (2008). Variation at the mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) influences attachment behavior in infant primates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105, 5277–5281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bart, G., Kreek, M. J., Ott, J., LaForge, K. S., Proudnikov, D., Pollak, L., et al. (2005). Increased attributable risk related to a functional mu-opioid receptor gene polymorphism in association with alcohol dependence in central Sweden. Neuropsychopharmacology, 30, 417–422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Basbaum, A. I., & Fields, H. L. (1984). Endogenous pain control systems: Brainstem spinal pathways and endorphin circuitry. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 7, 309–338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauman, K., & Ennett, S. (1996). On the importance of peer influence for adolescent drug use: Commonly neglected considerations. Addiction, 9, 185–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Befort, K., Filliol, D., Decaillot, F. M., Gaveriaux-Ruff, C., Hoehe, M., & Kieffer, B. L. (2001). A single nucleotide polymorphic mutation in the human μ-opioid receptor severely impairs receptor signaling. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 176, 3130–3137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beirut, L., Dinwiddie, S., Begleiter, H., Crowe, R., Hesselbrock, V., Nurnberger, J., et al. (1998). Familial transmission of substance dependence: Alcohol, marijuana, cocaine and habitual smoking: A report from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 982–988.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergen, A. W., Kokoszka, J., Peterson, R., Long, J. C., Virkkunen, M., Linnoila, M., et al. (1997). Mu-opioid receptor gene variants: Lack of association with alcohol dependence. Molecular Psychiatry, 2, 490–494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beyer, A., Koch, T., Schröder, H., Schulz, S., & Höllt, V. (2004). Effect of the A118G polymorphism on binding affinity and agonist-mediated endocytosis, desensitization, and resensitization of the human μ-opioid receptor. Journal of Neurochemistry, 89, 553–560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bond, C., LaForge, K. S., Tian, M., Melia, D., Zhang, S., Borg, L., et al. (1998). Single-nucleotide polymorphism in the human mu opioid receptor gene alters beta-endorphin binding and activity: Possible implications for opiate addiction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 95, 9608–9613.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bullers, S., Cooper, M. L., & Russell, M. (2001). Social network drinking and adult alcohol involvement: A longitudinal exploration of the direction of influence. Addictive Behaviors, 26, 181–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bullock, B., Deater-Deckard, K., & Leve, L. (2006). Deviant peer affiliation and problem behavior: A test of genetic and environmental influences. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 29–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chassin, L., Barrera, M., Bech, K., & Kossak-Fuller, J. (1992). Recruiting a community sample of adolescent children of alcoholics: A comparison of three subject sources. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 53, 316–320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chassin, L., Flora, D., & King, K. (2004). Trajectories of alcohol and drug use and dependence from adolescence to adulthood: The effects of familial alcoholism and personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 483–498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chassin, L., Rogosch, F., & Barrera, M. (1991). Substance use and symptomatology among adolescent children of alcoholics. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 449–463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, K., & Kandel, D. B. (1995). The natural history of drug use from adolescence to the mid-thirties in a general population sample. American Journal of Public Health, 5, 41–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chein, J., Albert, D., O'Brien, L., Uckert, K., & Steinberg, L. (2010). Peers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain's reward circuitry. Developmental Science, 14, 1–10.Google Scholar
Cialdini, R. B., Kallgren, C. A., & Reno, R. R. (1990). A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 305–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleveland, H. H., Wiebe, R., & Rowe, D. (2005). Sources of exposure to smoking and drinking friends among adolescents: A behavioral–genetic evaluation. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 166, 153–169.Google ScholarPubMed
Copeland, W. E., Sun, H., Costello, E. J., Angold, A., Heilig, M. A., & Barr, C. S. (2011). Child µ-opioid receptor gene variant influences parent–child relations. Neuropsychopharmacology 36, 1165–1172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curran, P. J., Stice, E., & Chassin, L. (1997). The relation between adolescent alcohol use and peer alcohol use: A longitudinal random coefficients model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 130–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dackis, C., & O'Brien, O. (2005). Neurobiology of addiction: Treatment and public policy ramifications. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1431–1436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dick, D., Pagan, J., Holiday, C., Viken, R., Pulkkinen, L., Kaprio, J., et al. (2007). Gender differences in friends’ influences on adolescent drinking: A genetic epidemiological study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 12, 2012–2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dishion, T., & Owen, L. (2002). A longitudinal analysis of friendships and substance use: Bidirectional influence from adolescence to adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 38, 480–491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Draper, N. R., & Smith, H. (1966). Applied regression analysis. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Draper, N. R., & Smith, H. (1981). Applied regression analysis. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Du, Y., & Wan, Y. J. (2009). The interaction of reward genes with environmental factors in contribution to alcoholism in Mexican Americans. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 33, 2103–2112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, T., Duncan, S., & Hops, H. (1994). The effects of family cohesiveness and peer encouragement on the development of adolescent alcohol use: A cohort-sequential approach to the analysis of longitudinal data. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 55, 588–599.Google Scholar
Endicott, J., Andreasen, N., & Sptizer, R. L. (1975). Family history diagnostic criteria. New York: New York Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research.Google Scholar
Flannery, D., Vazsonyi, A., Torquati, J., & Fridrich, A. (1994). Ethnic and gender differences in risk for early adolescent substance use. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 23, 195–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, J. H., Settle, J. E., & Christakis, N. A. (2011). Correlated genotypes in friendship networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 1993–1997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, T., Shelton, K., Lifford, K., Rice, T., McBride, A., Nikolov, I., et al. (2007). Genetic and environmental influences on the relationship between peer alcohol use and own alcohol use in adolescents. Addiction, 102, 894–903.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gardner, M., & Steinberg, L. (2005). Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: An experimental study. Developmental Psychology, 41, 625–635.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gscheidel, N., Sander, T., Wendel, B., Heere, P., Schmidt, L. G., Rommelspacher, H., et al. (2000). Five exon 1 variants of mu opioid receptor and vulnerability to alcohol dependence. Polish Journal of Pharmacology, 52, 27–31.Google ScholarPubMed
Guo, G., Elder, G., Cai, T., & Hamilton, N. (2009). Gene–environment interactions: Peers’ alcohol use moderates genetic contribution to adolescent drinking behavior. Social Science Research, 38, 213–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harford, T. C., Grant, B. F., Yi, H., & Chen, C. M. (2005). Patterns of DSM–IV alcohol abuse and dependence criteria among adolescents and adults: Results from the 2001 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 29, 810–828.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heath, A. C., Bucholz, K. K., Madden, P. A., Dinwiddie, S. H., Slutske, W. S., Beirut, L. J., et al. (1997). Genetic and environmental contributions to alcohol dependence risk in a national twin sample: Consistency of findings in women and men. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1381–1396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heath, A. C., Meyer, J., Hardine, R., & Martin, N. (1991). The inheritance of alcohol consumption patterns in a general population twin sample: II. Determinants of consumption frequency and quantity consumed. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52, 425–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helzer, J., & Pryzbeck, T. (1988). The co-occurrence of alcoholism with other psychiatric disorders in the general population and its impact on treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 49, 219–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herz, A. (1997). Endogenous opioid systems and alcohol addiction. Psychopharmacology, 129, 99–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higham, J. P., Barr, C. S., Hoffman, C. L., Mandalaywala, T. M., Parker, K. J., & Maestripieri, D. (2011). Mu-opioid receptor (OPRM1) variation, oxytocin levels and maternal attachment in free-ranging rhesus macaques Macaca mulatta. Behavioral Neuroscience, 125, 131–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, J., Emery, R., Harden, K., Mendle, J., & Turkeimer, E. (2008). Alcohol use in adolescent twins and affiliation with substance using peers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 81–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iacono, W., Malone, S., & McGue, M. (2003). Substance use disorders, externalizing psychopathology, and P300 event-related potential amplitude. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 48, 147–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iacono, W., Malone, S., & McGue, M. (2008). Behavioral disinhibition and the development of early-onset addiction: Common and specific influences. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 325–348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, E., Chen, L., Breslau, N., Hatsukami, D., Robbins, T., Saccone, N., et al. (2010). Peer smoking and the nicotinic receptor genes: An examination of genetic and environmental risks for nicotine dependence. Addiction, 105, 2014–2022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnston, L., O'Malley, P., & Bachman, J. (1988). Illicit drug use, smoking and drinking by America's high school students, college students, and young adults 1975–1987. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2007). Overall, illicit drug use by American teens continues gradual decline in 2007. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan News Service.Google Scholar
Juvonen, J. (1991). Deviance, perceived responsibility, and negative peer reactions. Developmental Psychology, 27, 672–681.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kandel, D. B. (1985). On processes of peer influences in adolescent drug use: A developmental perspective. Advances in Alcohol and Substance Use, 4, 139–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. (2011). Peer group deviance, conduct disorder, and alcohol intake. In Kendler, K., Jaffee, S., & Romer, D. (Eds.), The dynamic genome and mental health: The role of genes and environment in youth development (pp. 365–387). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kendler, K., Jacobson, K., Gardner, C., Gillespie, N., Aggen, S., & Prescott, C. (2007). Creating a social world: A developmental study of peer deviance. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 958–965.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kendler, K., Myers, J., & Prescott, C. (2007). Specificity of genetic and environmental risk factors for symptoms of cannabis, cocaine, alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1313–1320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K., Schmitt, E., Aggen, S., & Prescott, C. (2008). Genetic and environmental influences on alcohol, caffeine, cannabis, and nicotine use from adolescence to middle adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 674–682.Google ScholarPubMed
Kim, S. A., Kim, J. W., Song, J. Y., Park, S., Lee, H. J., & Chung, J. H. (2004). Association of polymorphisms in nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha 4 subunit gene (CHRNA4), mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1), and ethanol-metabolizing enzyme genes with alcoholism in Korean patients. Alcohol, 34, 115–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, S. G., Kim, C. M., Kang, D. H., Kim, Y. J., Byun, W. T., Kim, S. Y., et al. (2004). Association of functional opioid receptor genotypes with alcohol dependence in Koreans. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28, 986–990.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, K., & Chassin, L. (2004). Mediating and moderated effects of adolescent behavioral undercontrol and parenting in the prediction of drug use disorders in emerging adulthood. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18, 239–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, K., Molina, B., & Chassin, L. (2008). A state–trait model of negative life event occurrence in adolescence: Predictors of stability in the occurrence of stressors. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 848–859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
King, S., Keyes, M., Malone, S., Elkins, I., Legrand, L., Iacono, W., et al. (2009). Parental alcohol dependence and the transmission of adolescent behavioral disinhibition: A study of adoptive and non-adoptive families. Addiction, 104, 578–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kranzler, H., & Edenberg, H. (2010). Pharmacogenetics of alcohol and alcohol dependence treatment. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 16, 2141–2148.Google ScholarPubMed
Kreek, M. J. (1996). Opiates, opioids, and addiction. Molecular Psychiatry, 1, 232–254.Google ScholarPubMed
Kreek, M. J., Nielsen, D. A., Butelman, E. R., & LaForge, K. S. (2005). Genetic influences on impulsivity, risk taking, stress responsivity and vulnerability to drug abuse and addiction. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1450–1457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krueger, R. F., Hicks, B. M., Patrick, C. J., Carlson, S. R., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2002). Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior, and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 411–424.Google ScholarPubMed
Loehlin, J. (2010). Is there an active gene–environment correlation in adolescent drinking behavior? Behavior Genetics, 40, 447–451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loh, E. W., Fann, C. S., Chang, Y. T., Chang, C. J., & Cheng, A. T. (2004). Endogenous opioid receptor genes and alcohol dependence among Taiwanese Han. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28, 15–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKinnon, D., Lockwood, C., Hoffman, J., West, S., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merikangas, K. R., Stolar, M., Stevens, D. E., Goulet, J., Presisig, M. A., Fenton, B., et al. (1998). Familial transmission of substance use disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 973–979.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miranda, R., Ray, L. A., Justus, A., Meyerson, L. A., Knopik, V. S., McGeary, J., et al. (2010). Influence of the OPRM1 gene on adolescent alcohol misuse: Mechanisms and moderators. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34, 1–11.Google Scholar
Moles, A., Kieffer, B. L., & D'Amato, F. R. (2004). Deficit in attachment behavior in mice lacking the mu-opioid receptor gene. Science, 304, 1983–1986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Monahan, K., Steinberg, L., & Cauffman, E. (2009). Affiliation with antisocial peers, susceptibility to peer influence, and antisocial behavior during the transition to adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1520–1530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morean, M., & Corbin, W. (2010). Subjective response to alcohol: A critical review of the literature. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34, 385–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2010). Mplus user's guide (5th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Nishizawa, D., Han, W., Hasegawa, J., Ishida, T., Numata, Y., Sato, T., et al. (2006). Association of mu-opioid receptor gene polymorphism A118g with alcohol dependence in a Japanese population. Neuropsychobiology 53, 137–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ohannessian, C., & Hesselbrock, V. (2008). A comparison of three vulnerability models for the onset of substance use in a high-risk sample. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 66, 75–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parra, G., Krull, J., Sher, K. J., & Jackson, K. (2007). Frequency of heavy drinking and perceived peer alcohol involvement: Comparison of influence and selection mechanisms from a developmental perspective. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 2211–2225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poulin, F., Denault, A., & Pedersen, S. (2011). Longitudinal associations between other-sex friendships and substance use in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 776–788.Google Scholar
Ray, L. A., & Hutchison, K. E. (2004). A polymorphism of the mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) and sensitivity to the effects of alcohol in humans. Alcoholism: Clinical, and Experimental Research, 28, 1789–1795.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ray, L. A., Miranda, R., Tidey, J. W., McGeary, J. E., MacKillop, J., Gwaltney, C. J., et al. (2010). Polymorphisms of the mu-opioid receptor and dopamine D4 receptor genes and subjective responses to alcohol in the natural environment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 115–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reifman, A., Barnes, G., Dinrcheff, B., Farrell, M., & Uhteg, L. (1998). Parental and peer influences on the onset of heavier drinking among adolescents. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 59, 311–317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reiss, D. (2010). Genetic thinking in the study of social relationships: Five points of entry. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 502–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Croughan, J., & Ratcliff, K. S. (1981). National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule: Its history, characteristics and validity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 381–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenquist, J., Murabito, J., Fowler, J., & Christakis, N. (2010). The spread of alcohol consumption behavior in a large social network. Annals of Internal Medicine, 152, 426–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sander, T., Gscheidel, N., Wendel, B., Samochowiec, J., Smolka, M., Rommelspacher, H., et al. (1998). Human mu-opioid receptor variation and alcohol dependence. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 22, 2108–2110.Google ScholarPubMed
Schuckit, M. A., & Smith, T. L. (1997). Assessing the risk for alcoholism among sons of alcoholics. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 58, 141–145.Google ScholarPubMed
Sher, K. J. (1991). Children of alcoholics: A critical appraisal of theory and research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Sher, K. J., & Levenson, R. (1982). Risk for alcoholism and individual differences in the stress-response-dampening effect of alcohol. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91, 350–367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sher, K. J., Walitzer, K., Wood, P., & Brent, E. (1991). Characteristics of children of alcoholics: Putative risk factors, substance use and abuse and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 427–448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simons-Morton, B., & Farhat, T. (2010). Recent findings on peer group influences on adolescent smoking. Journal of Primary Prevention, 31, 191–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soderpalm, G., & Solderpalm, B. (2011). Healthy subjects with a family history of alcoholism show increased stimulative subjective effects of alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 35, 1426–1434.Google Scholar
Steinberg, L., & Monahan, K. (2007). Age differences in resistance to peer influence. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1531–1543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sumter, S., Bokhorst, C., Steinberg, L., & Westenberg, P. (2009). The developmental pattern of resistance to peer influence in adolescence: Will the teenager ever be able to resist? Journal of Adolescence, 32, 1009–1021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Town, T., Abdullah, L., Crawford, F., Schinka, J., Ordorica, P. I., Francis, E., et al. (1999). Association of a functional mu-opioid receptor allele (+118a) with alcohol dependency. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 88, 458–461.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Troisi, A., Frazzetto, G., Carola, V., Di Lorenzo, G., Coviello, M., D'Amato, F., et al. (2011). Social hedonic capacity is associated with the A118G polymorphism of the mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) in adult healthy volunteers and psychiatric patients. Social Neuroscience, 6, 88–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van den Wildenberg, E., Wiers, R. W., Dessers, J., Janssen, R. G., Lambrichs, E. H., Smeets, H. J., et al. (2007). A functional polymorphism of the mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) influences cue-induced craving for alcohol in male heavy drinkers. Alcoholism: Clinical, and Experimental Research, 31, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van der Zwaluw, C., Larsen, H., & Engels, R. (2011). Best friends and alcohol use in adolescence: The role of the dopamine D4 receptor. Addiction Biology. Epub ahead of print. doi:10.1111/j.1369-1600.2010.00305.x.Google ScholarPubMed
Way, B. M., Taylor, S. E., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2009). Variation in the mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) is associated with dispositional and neural sensitivity to social rejection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 15079–15084.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiers, R. W., Rinck, M., Dictus, M., & van den Wildenberg, E. (2009). Relatively strong automatic appetitive action-tendencies in male carriers of the OPRM1 G-allele. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 8, 101–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Young-Wolff, K. C., Enoch, M. A., & Prescott, C. A. (2011). The influence of gene–environment interactions on alcohol consumption and alcohol use disorders: A comprehensive review. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 800–816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zadina, J. E., Hackler, L., Ge, L. J., & Kastin, A. J. (1997). A potent and selective endogenous agonist for the mu-opiate receptor. Nature, 6624, 499–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhang, Y., Wang, D., Johnson, A. D., Papp, A .C., & Sadée, W. (2005). Allele expression imbalance of human mu opioid receptor (OPRM1) caused by variant A118G. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 280, 32618–32624.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zimmerman, U., Buchmann, A., Spring, C., Uhr, M., Holsboer, F., & Wittchen, H. (2009). Ethanol administration dampens the prolactin response to psychosocial stress exposure in sons of alcohol-dependent fathers. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 996–1003.Google Scholar
Zucker, R., Donovan, J., Masten, A., Mattson, M., & Moss, H. (2008). Early developmental processes and the continuity of risk for underage drinking and problem drinking. Pediatrics, 121, S252–S272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed