Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T06:57:28.116Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The role of anxiety in the development, maintenance, and treatment of childhood aggression

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 November 2014

Isabela Granic
Isabela Granic*
Affiliation:
Radboud University Nijmegen
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Isabela Granic, Department of Developmental Psychopathology, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, Faculteit Sociale Wetenschappen, Montessorilaan 3, 6525 HR Nijmegen, The Netherlands; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The majority of aggressive children exhibit symptoms of anxiety, yet none of our developmental models of aggression incorporate the role of anxiety, and our treatments ignore this comorbidity. This article outlines a novel theoretical model that specifies three hypotheses about comorbid anxious and aggressive children: (a) unpredictable parenting induces anxiety in children that in turn triggers aggressive behavior; (b) prolonged periods of anxiety deplete children's capacity to inhibit impulses and trigger bouts of aggression, and aggression in turn functions to regulate levels of anxiety; and (c) minor daily stressors give rise to anxiety while cognitive perseveration maintains anxious moods, increasingly disposing children to aggress. Little or no research has directly tested these hypotheses. Extant research and theory consistent with these claims are herein reviewed, and future research designs that can test them specifically are suggested. The clinical implications most relevant to the hypotheses are discussed, and to improve the efficacy of treatments for childhood aggression, it is proposed that anxiety may need to be the primary target of treatment.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 26 , Special Issue 4pt2: Multilevel Developmental Perspectives Toward Understanding Internalizing Psychopathology: Current Research and Future Directions , November 2014 , pp. 1515 - 1530
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T., McConaughy, S., & Howell, C. T. (1987). Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 213–232.Google Scholar
Adams, D. B. (2006). Brain mechanisms of aggressive behavior: An updated review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 304–318.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehan, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Allen, J. P., Porter, M., McFarland, F. C., McElhaney, K. B., & Marsh, P. (2007). The relation of attachment security to adolescents' paternal and peer relationships, depression, and externalizing behavior. Child Development, 78, 1222–1239.Google Scholar
Amstadter, A. B. (2008). Emotion regulation and anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 211–221.Google Scholar
Augimeri, L. K., Farrington, D. P., Koegl, C. J., & Day, D. M. (2007). The SNAPTM Under 12 Outreach Project: Effects of a community based program for children with conduct problems. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16, 799–807.Google Scholar
Aydin, O., & Markova, I. (1979). Attribution tendencies of popular and unpopular children. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 18, 291–298.Google Scholar
Barkley, R. A. (2000). Commentary on the multimodal treatment study of children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 595–599.Google Scholar
Barrett, P. M., Dadds, M. R., & Rapee, R. M. (1996). Family treatment of childhood anxiety: A controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 333–342.Google Scholar
Barrett, P. M., Duffy, A. L., Dadds, M. R., & Rapee, R. M. (2001). Cognitive–behavioral treatment of anxiety disorders in children: Long-term (6-year) follow-up. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 135–141.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252–1265.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., & Heatherton, T. F. (1996). Self-regulation failure: An overview. Psychological Inquiry, 7, 1–15.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Tice, D. M. (2007). The strength model of self-control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 351–355.Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P., Gartner, J., & Hagen, B. (2000). Comorbid depression and heart rate variability as predictors of aggressive and hyperactive symptom responsiveness during inpatient treatment of conduct-disordered ADHD boys. Aggressive Behavior, 26, 425–441.Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P., Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, M. J. (2005). Mediators, moderators, and predictors of 1-year outcomes among children treated for early-onset conduct problems: A latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 371–388.Google Scholar
Bittner, A., Egger, H. L., Erkanli, A., Costello, E. J., Foley, D. L., & Angold, A. (2007). What do childhood anxiety disorders predict? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1174–1183.Google Scholar
Bloomquist, M. L., & Schnell, S. V. (2002). Helping children with aggression and conduct problems: Best practices for intervention. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bosch, O. J., Meddle, S. L., Beiderbeck, D. I., Douglas, A. J., & Neumann, I. D. (2005). Brain oxytocin correlates with maternal aggression: Link to anxiety. Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 6807–6815.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss (Vol. 1). New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Boylan, K., Vaillancourt, T., Boyle, M., & Szatmari, P. (2007). Comorbidity of internalizing disorders in children with oppositional defiant disorder. European Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 16, 484–494.Google Scholar
Bradley, S. J. (2000). Affect regulation and the development of psychopathology. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Brestan, E. V., & Eyberg, S. M. (1998). Effective psychosocial treatments of conduct disordered children and adolescents: 29 years, 82 studies, and 5,272 kids. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 180–189.Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., Ge, X., Conger, R., Gibbons, F. X., McBride Murray, V., Gerrard, M., et al. (2001). The influence of neighborhood disadvantage, collective socialization, and parenting on African American children's affiliation with deviant peers. Child Development, 72, 1231–1246.Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., Ge, X., Kim, Y., McBride Murray, V., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., et al. (2003). Neighborhood disadvantage moderates associations of parenting and older sibling problem attitudes and behaviors with conduct disorders in African American children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 211–222.Google Scholar
Brosschot, J. F. (2010). Markers of chronic stress: Prolonged physiological activation and (un)conscious perseverative cognition. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 46–50.Google Scholar
Bubier, J. L., & Drabnick, D. A. G. (2009). Co-occurring anxiety and disruptive behavior disorders: The roles of anxious symptoms, reactive aggression, and shared risk processes. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 658–669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burke, J. D., Loeber, R., Lahey, B. B., & Rathouz, P. J. (2005). Developmental transitions among affective and behavioral disorders in adolescent boys. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 1200–1210.Google Scholar
Calkins, S. D., & Fox, N. A. (2002). Self-regulatory processes in early personality development: A multilevel approach to the study of childhood social withdrawal and aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 477–498.Google Scholar
Campbell, S. B., Spieker, S., Burchinal, M., Poe, M. D., & The NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2006). Trajectories of aggression from toddlerhood to age 9 predict academic and social functioning through age 12. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 791–800.Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M., & Wang, T. S. (2007). Inhibitory control and emotion regulation in preschool children. Cognitive Development, 22, 489–510.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Henry, B., McGee, R. O., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1995). Temperamental origins of child and adolescent behavior problems: From age three to age fifteen. Child Development, 66, 55–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., Harrington, H., et al. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386–389.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1991). A developmental perspective on internalizing and externalizing problems. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (Eds.), Internalizing and externalizing expressions of dysfunction (Vol. 2, pp. 1–20). New York: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cleckley, H. (1982). The mask of sanity. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.Google Scholar
Cohn, M. A., Fredrickson, B. L., Brown, S. L., Mikels, J. A., & Conway, A. M. (2009). Happiness unpacked: Positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building resilience. Emotion, 9, 361–368.Google Scholar
Cole, D. A., Truglio, R., & Peeke, L. (1997). Relation between symptoms of anxiety and depression in children: A multitrait-multimethod-multigroup assessment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 110–119.Google Scholar
Connor, D. F. (2002). Aggression and antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: Research and treatment. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Copeland, W. E., Sun, H., Costello, E. J., Angold, A., Heilig, M. A., & Barr, C. S. (2011). Child m-opioid receptor gene variant influences parent-child relations. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36, 1165–1170.Google Scholar
Costin, J., & Chambers, S. (2007). Parent management training as a treatment for children with oppositional defiant disorder referred to a mental health clinic. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 12, 511–524.Google Scholar
Dadds, M. R., Barrett, P. M., Rapee, R. M., & Ryan, S. (1996). Family process and child anxiety and aggression: An observational analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 715–734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dadds, M. R., Spence, S. H., Holland, D. E., Barrett, P. M., & Laurens, K. R. (1997). Prevention and early intervention for anxiety disorders: A controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 627–635.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1872). The expression of emotion in animals and man. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
De Los Reyes, A., & Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Informant discrepancies in the assessment of childhood psychopathology: A critical review, theoretical framework, and recommendations for further study. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 483–509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dishion, T. J., Nelson, S. E., Winter, C. E., & Bullock, B. M. (2004). Adolescent friendship as a dynamic system: Entropy and deviance in the etiology and course of male antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 651–663.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A. (1980). Social cognition and children's aggressive behavior. Child Development, 51, 162–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A. (1991). Emotion and social information processing. In Garber, J. & Dodge, K. A. (Eds.), The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation (pp. 159–181). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1987). Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children's peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1146–1158.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Murphy, R. R., & Buchsbaum, K. (1984). The assessment of intention-cue detection skills in children: Implications for developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 163–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2003). A biopsychosocial model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 39, 349–371.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Price, J. M., Bachorowski, J., & Newman, J. P. (1990). Hostile attributional biases in severely aggressive adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 385–392.Google Scholar
Dodge, K. A., & Somberg, D. (1987). Hostile attributional biases among aggressive boys are exacerbated under conditions of threats to the self. Child Development, 58, 213–224.Google Scholar
Donenberg, G. R., & Weisz, J. R. (1997). Experimental task and speaker effects on parent–child interactions of aggressive and depressed/anxious children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 367–387.Google Scholar
Dumas, J. E. (1989). Treating antisocial behavior in children: Child and family approaches. Clinical Psychology Review, 9, 197–222.Google Scholar
Dumas, J. E., & LaFreniere, P. J. (1993). Mother–child relationships as sources of support or stress: A comparison of competent, average, aggressive, and anxious dyads. Child Development, 64, 1732–1754.Google Scholar
Dumas, J. E., LaFreniere, P. J., & Serketich, W. J. (1995). “Balance of power”: A transactional analysis of control in mother-child dyads involving socially competent, aggressive, and anxious children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 104–113.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., & Vaughn, J. (2007). Effortful control and its socioemotional consequences. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 287–322). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., & Morris, A. S. (2003). Children's emotion-related regulation. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 30, 189–229.Google Scholar
Eyberg, S. M., Nelson, M. M., & Boggs, S. R. (2008). Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with disruptive behavior. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37, 215–237.Google Scholar
Farrington, D. P. (1994). Childhood, adolescent, and adult features of violent males. In Huesmann, L. R., (Ed.), Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives (Plenum series in social/clinical psychology, pp. 215–240). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Ferreira, A., Hansen, S., Nielsen, M., Archer, T., & Minor, B. G. (1989). Behavior of mother rats in conflict tests sensitive to antianxiety agents. Behavioral Neuroscience, 103, 193–201.Google Scholar
Feshbach, S. (1970). Aggression. In Mussen, P. H. (Ed.), Carmichael's manual of child psychology (Vol. 2). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Flannery-Schroeder, E. C., & Kendall, P. C. (2000). Group and individual cognitive–behavioral treatments for youth with anxiety disorders: A randomized clinical trial. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 24, 251–278.Google Scholar
Fleitlich-Bilyk, B., & Goodman, R. (2004). Prevalence of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders in southeast Brazil. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 727–734.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forgatch, M. S., & DeGarmo, D. S. (1999). Two faces of Janus: Cohesion and conflict. In Cox, M. J. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.), Conflict and cohesion in families: Causes and consequences (pp. 167–184). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Fox, N. A., & Calkins, S. (2003). The development of self-control of emotion: Intrinsic and extrinsic influences. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 7–26.Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1959). Inhibitions, symptoms, anxiety. New York: Norton. (Original work published 1926)Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Morris, A. S. (2004). Temperament and developmental pathways to conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 33, 54–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fridja, N. H. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge: University of Cambridge.Google Scholar
Ford, T., Goodman, R., & Meltzer, H. (2003). The British child and adolescent mental health survey 1999: The prevalence of DSM-IV disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1203–1211.Google Scholar
Gonzalez, A., Moore, P. S., Garcia, A. M., Thienemann, M., & Huffman, L. (2011). Activation during observed parent–child interactions with anxious youths: A pilot study. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 159–170.Google Scholar
Granic, I., & Hollenstein, T. (2003). Dynamic systems methods for models of developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 641–669.Google Scholar
Granic, I., & Hollenstein, T. (2006). A survey of dynamic systems methods for developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 889–930). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Granic, I., Hollenstein, T., Dishion, T. J., & Patterson, G. R. (2003). Longitudinal analysis of flexibility and reorganization in early adolescence: A dynamic systems study of family interactions. Developmental Psychology, 39, 606–617.Google Scholar
Granic, I., & Lamey, A. V. (2002) Combining dynamic systems and multivariate analyses to compare the mother–child interactions of externalizing subtypes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 265–283.Google Scholar
Granic, I., O'Hara, A., Pepler, D., & Lewis, M. D. (2007). A dynamic systems analysis of parent–child changes associated with successful “real-world” interventions with aggressive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 845–857.Google Scholar
Granic, I., & Patterson, G. R. (2006). Toward a comprehensive model of antisocial development: A dynamic systems approach. Psychological Review, 113, 101–131.Google Scholar
Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gray, J. A. (1987). Perspectives on anxiety and impulsivity: A commentary. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 493–509.Google Scholar
Gray, J. A. (1994). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Greenberg, M. T., Speltz, M. L., DeKlyen, M., & Jones, K. (2001). Correlates of clinic referral for early conduct problems: Variable- and person-oriented approaches. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 255–276.Google Scholar
Greene, R. W., Biederman, J., Zerwas, S., Monuteaux, M., Goring, J. C., & Faraone, S. V. (2002). Psychiatric comorbidity, family dysfunction, and social impairment in referred youth with oppositional defiant disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1214–1224.Google Scholar
Grimbos, T., & Granic, I. (2009). Changes in maternal depression are associated with MST outcomes for adolescents with co-occurring externalizing and internalizing problems. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 1–9.Google Scholar
Hard, E., & Hansen, S. (1985). Reduced fearfulness in the lactating rat. Physiology & Behavior, 35, 641–643.Google Scholar
Hawes, D. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2006). Assessing parenting practices through parent-report and direct observation during parent-training. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 555–586.Google Scholar
Heatherton, T. F., & Wagner, D. D. (2011). Cognitive neuroscience of self-regulation failure. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 132–139.Google Scholar
Hill, J., & Maughan, B. (Eds.). (2001). Conduct disorders in childhood and adolescence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P. (1987). On the distinction between attentional deficits/hyperactivity and conduct problems/aggression in child psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 443–463.Google Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P. (1994). Attention deficits and hyperactivity in children (Developmental clinical psychology and psychiatry series). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P. (2002). Process, mechanism, and explanation related to externalizing behavior in developmental psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 431–446.Google Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P., & Zupan, B. A. (1997). Assessment of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. In Stoff, D. M., Breiling, J., & Maser, J. D. (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 36–50). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Hirsh, J. B., Galinsky, A. D., & Zhong, C. (2011). Drunk, powerful, and in the dark: How general processes of disinhibition produce both prosocial and antisocial behavior. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 415–427.Google Scholar
Hollenstein, T., Granic, I., Stoolmiller, M., & Snyder, J. (2004). Rigidity in parent–child interactions and the development of externalizing and internalizing behavior in early childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 595–607.Google Scholar
Huber, D. P., Veinante, R., & Stoop, I. (2005). Vasopressin and oxytocin excite distinct neuronal populations in the central amygdala. Science, 308, 245–248.Google Scholar
Ialongo, N., Edelsohn, G., Werthamer-Larsson, L., Crockett, L., & Kellam, S. (1994). The significance of self-reported anxious symptoms in first-grade children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 441–455.Google Scholar
Izard, C. E. (1991). The psychology of emotions. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Jester, M. M., Nigg, J. T., Buu, A., Puttler, L. I., Glass, J.M, Heitzeg, M. M., et al. (2008). Trajectories of childhood aggression and inattention/hyperactivity: Differential effects of substance abuse in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 1158–1165.Google Scholar
Katja, K., & Pulkkinen, L. (2000). Aggression in childhood and long-term unemployment in adulthood: A cycle of maladaptation and some protective factors. Developmental Psychology, 36, 463–472.Google Scholar
Kazdin, A. E. (1987). Treatment of antisocial behavior in children: Current status and future directions. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 187–203.Google Scholar
Kazdin, A. E. (2001a). Progression of therapy research and clinical application of treatment require better understanding of the change process. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 8, 143–151.Google Scholar
Kazdin, A. E. (2001b). Treatment of conduct disorders. In Hill, J. & Maughn, B. (Eds.), Conduct disorders in childhood and adolescence (pp. 408–448). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kazdin, A. E. (2002). Psychosocial treatments for conduct disorder in children and adolescents. In Nathan, P. E. & Gorman, J. M. (Eds.), A guide to treatments that work (2nd ed., pp. 57–85). London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kazdin, A. (2007). Mediators and mechanisms of change in psychotherapy research. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 1–27.Google Scholar
Kazdin, A., & Whitley, M. (2006). Comorbidity, case complexity, and effects of evidence-based treatment for children referred for disruptive behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 455–467.Google Scholar
Kendall, P. C., Flannery-Schroeder, E., Panichelli-Mindel, S., Southam-Gerow, M., Henin, A., & Warman, M. (1997). Therapy for youths with anxiety disorders: A second randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 366–380.Google Scholar
Klein, M. (1948). On the theory of anxiety and guilt. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 29, 113–123.Google Scholar
Koegl, C. J., Farrington, D. P., Augimeri, L. K., & Day, (2008). Evaluation of a targeted cognitive– behavioural program for children with conduct problems—The SNAPTM Under 12 Outreach Project: Service intensity, age and gender effects on short and long term outcomes. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 13, 441–456.Google Scholar
Kolko, D. J, & Kazdin, A. E. (1993). Emotional/behavioral problems in clinic and nonclinic children: Correspondence among child, parent and teacher reports. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 991–1006.Google Scholar
Krug, E. G., Mercy, J. A., Dahlberg, L. L., & Zwi, A. (2002). The world report on violence and health. Lancet, 360, 1083–1088.Google Scholar
LaFreniere, P. J., & Dumas, J. E. (1995). A transactional analysis of early childhood anxiety and social withdrawal. Developmental Psychopathology, 4, 385–402.Google Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Burke, J., Rathouz, P. J., & McBurnett, K. (2002). Waxing and waning in concert: Dynamic comorbidity of conduct disorder with other disruptive and emotional problems over 17 years among clinic-referred boys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 556–567.Google Scholar
Laird, R. D., Pettit, G. S., Dodge, K. A., & Bates, J. E. (2003). Change in parents' monitoring knowledge: Links with parenting, relationship quality, adolescent beliefs, and antisocial behavior. Social Development, 12, 401–419.Google Scholar
Lamm, C., Granic, I., Zelazo, P. D., & Lewis, M. D. (2011). Magnitude and chronometry of neural mechanisms of emotion regulation in subtypes of aggressive children. Brain and Cognition, 77, 159–169.Google Scholar
Larson, R., & Lampman-Petraitis, C. (1989). Daily emotional states as reported by children and adolescents. Child Development, 60, 1250–1260.Google Scholar
Last, C. G., Perrin, S., Hersen, M., & Kazdin, A. E. (1996). A prospective study of childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1502–1510.Google Scholar
Laurent, J., & Ettelson, R. (2001). An examination of the tripartite model of anxiety and depression and its application to youth. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 209–230.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. D. (2011). Dopamine and the neural “now”: Essay and review of Addiction: A disorder of choice . Perspectives in Psychological Science, 6, 150–155.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. D., Granic, I., Lamm, C., Steiben, J., Todd, R. M., Moadab, I., et al. (2008). Changes in the neural bases of emotion regulation associated with clinical improvement in children with behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 913–939.Google Scholar
Lewis, M. D., Lamey, A. V., & Douglas, L. (1999). A new dynamic systems method for the analysis of early socioemotional development. Developmental Science, 2, 458–476.Google Scholar
Lichwarck-Aschoff, A., Hasselman, F., Cox, R., Pepler, D., & Granic, I. (2012). A characteristic destabilization profile in parent-child interactions associated with treatment efficacy for aggressive children. Nonlinear Dynamics, Psychology, and Life Sciences, 16, 353–379.Google Scholar
Lillienfeld, S. O. (2007). Psychological treatments that cause harm. Perspectives in Psychological Science, 2, 53–70.Google Scholar
Lochman, J. E. (1992). Cognitive–behavioral intervention with aggressive boys: Three-year follow-up and preventive effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 426–432.Google Scholar
Lochman, J. E., & Lenhart, L. A. (1993). Anger coping intervention for aggressive children: Conceptual models and outcome effects. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 785–805.Google Scholar
Loeber, R. (1988). Natural histories of conduct problems, delinquency, and associated substance use: Evidence for developmental progressions. In Lahey, B. B. & Kazdin, A. E. (Eds.). Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 11, pp. 73–124). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Loeber, R. (1990). Development and risk factors of juvenile antisocial behavior and delinquency. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 1–41.Google Scholar
Loeber, R., Burke, J. D., Mutchka, J. S., & Lahey, B. B. (2004). Gun carrying and conduct disorder: A highly combustible combination? Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 158, 138–145.Google Scholar
Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (2000). Young children who commit crime: Epidemiology, developmental origins, risk factors, early interventions, and policy implications. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 737–762.Google Scholar
Luby, J. L., Belden, A., Sullivan, J., & Spitznagel, E. (2007). Preschoolers' contribution to their diagnosis of depression and anxiety: Uses and limitations of young child self-report of symptoms. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 38, 321–338.Google Scholar
Lunkenheimer, E. S., Olson, S. L., Hollenstein, T., Sameroff, A. J., & Winter, C. (2011). Dyadic flexibility and positive affect in parent–child coregulation and the development of child behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 577–591.Google Scholar
Lynam, D. R. (1996). Early identification of chronic offenders: Who is the fledgling psychopath? Psychological Bulletin, 120, 209–234.Google Scholar
Mahler, M. S., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (1975). The psychological birth of the human infant. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Marmorstein, N. (2007). Relationships between anxiety and externalizing disorders in youth: The influences of age and gender. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21, 420–432.Google Scholar
Martinez, C. R. Jr., & Forgatch, M. S. (2001). Preventing problems with boys' noncompliance: Effects of a parent training intervention for divorcing mothers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 416–428.Google Scholar
McBurnett, K., Lahey, B. B., Frick, P. J., Risch, C., Loeber, R., Hart, E. L., et al. (1991). Anxiety, inhibition, and conduct disorder in children: II. Relation to salivary cortisol. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 192–196.Google Scholar
McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., & Weisz, J. R. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 155–172.Google Scholar
Merk, W., de Castro, B. O., Koops, W., & Matthys, W. (2010). The distinction between reactive and proactive aggression: Utility for theory, diagnosis and treatment? European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2, 197–220.Google Scholar
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). The neuropsychology of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 135–151.Google Scholar
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Ollendick, T., King, N., & Bogie, N. (2002). Three traditional and three new childhood anxiety questionnaires: Their reliability and validity in a normal sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 753–772.Google Scholar
Muris, P., & Ollendick, T. H. (2005). The role of temperament in the etiology of child psychopathology. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, 271–289.Google Scholar
Myin-Germeys, I., Oosrschot, M., Collip, D., Lataster, J., Delespaul, P., & van Os, J. (2009). Experience sampling research in psychopathology: Opening the black box of daily life. Psychological Medicine, 39, 1533–1547.Google Scholar
Neumann, I. D., Veenema, A. H., & Beiderbeck, D. I. (2010). Aggression and anxiety: Social context and neurobiological links. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 4, 1–16.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (2000). On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: Views from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 220–246.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T., Goldsmith, H. H., & Sachek, J. (2004). Temperament and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: The development of a multiple pathway model. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 33, 42–53.Google Scholar
Nyberg, J. M., Vekovischeva, O., & Sandnabba, N. K. (2003). Anxiety profiles of mice selectively bred for intermal aggression. Behavior Genetics, 33, 503–511.Google Scholar
O'Donnel, L., Stueve, A., Myint-U, A, Duran, R., Agronick, G., & Wilson-Simmons, . (2006). Middle school aggression and subsequent intimate partner physical partner violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 693–703.Google Scholar
Oland, A. A., & Shaw, D. S. (2005). Pure versus co-occurring externalizing and internalizing symptoms in children: The potential role of socio-developmental milestones. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, 247–270.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family processes. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1986). Performance models for antisocial boys. American Psychologist, 41, 432–444.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., Dishion, T. J., & Chamberlain, P. (1993). Outcomes and methodological issues relating to treatment of antisocial children. In Giles, T. R. (Ed.), Effective psychotherapy: A handbook of comparative research (pp. 43–88). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. (1992). Antisocial boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Patterson, M. L., Greising, L., Hyland, L. T., & Burger, G. K. (1997). Childhood depression, anxiety, and aggression: A reanalysis of Epkins and Meyers (1994). Journal of Personality Assessment, 69, 607–613.Google Scholar
Pieper, S., Brosschot, J. F., van der Leeden, R., & Thayer, J. F. (2010) Prolonged cardiac effects of momentary assessed stressful events and worry episodes. Psychosomatic Medicine, 72, 6, 570–577.Google Scholar
Pine, D. S. (2003). Developmental psychobiology and response to threats: Relevance to trauma in children and adolescents. Biological Psychiatry, 53, 796–808.Google Scholar
Polman, H., de Castro, B. O., Koops, W., van Boxtel, H. W., & Merk, W. W. (2007). A meta-analysis of the distinction between reactive and proactive aggression in children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 522–535.Google Scholar
Potegal, M., & Stemmler, G. (2010). Constructing a neurology of anger. In Potegal, M. (Ed.), International handbook of anger (pp. 39–59) New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Raine, A. (2002). Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: A review. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 311–326.Google Scholar
Russo, M. F., & Beidel, D. C. (1994). Comorbidity of childhood anxiety and externalizing disorders: Prevalence, associated characteristics, and validation issues. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 199–221.Google Scholar
Salters-Pedneault, K., Roemer, L., Tull, M. T., Rucker, L., & Mennin, D. S. (2006). Evidence of broad deficits in emotion regulation associated with chronic worry and generalized anxiety disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30, 469–480.Google Scholar
Sanders, M. R., Dadds, M. R., Johnston, M. B., & Cash, R. (1992). Childhood depression and conduct disorder: I. Behavioral, affective, and cognitive aspects of family problem-solving interactions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 495–504.Google Scholar
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Parental maltreatment and emotion dysregulation as risk factors for bullying and victimization in middle childhood. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychology, 30, 349–363.Google Scholar
Shipley, R. H., & Boudewyns, P. A. (1980). Flooding and implosive therapy: Are they harmful? Behavior Therapy, 11, 503–508.Google Scholar
Siegel, A. (2004). The neurobiology of aggression and rage. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Siegel, A., Roeling, T. A., Gregg, T. R., & Kruk, M. R. (1999). Neuropharmacology of brain-stimulation-evoked aggression. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 23, 359–389.Google Scholar
Silk, J. S., Forbes, E. E., Whalen, D. J., Jakubcak, J. L., Thompson, W. K., Ryan, N. D., et al. (2010). Daily emotional dynamics in depressed youth: A cell phone ecological momentary assessment study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 110, 241–257.Google Scholar
Simpson, A., & Riggs, K. J. (2005). Conditions under which children experience inhibitory difficulty with a “button-press” go/no-go task. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 94, 18–26.Google Scholar
Snyder, J., Edwards, P., McGraw, K., Kilsgore, K., & Holton, A. (1994). Escalation and reinforcement in mother–child conflict: Social processes associated with the development of physical aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 305–321.Google Scholar
Snyder, J., & Patterson, G. R. (1995). Individual differences in social aggression: A test of a reinforcement model of socialization in the natural environment. Behavior Therapy, 26, 371–391.Google Scholar
Speltz, M. L., McClellan, J., DeKlyen, M., & Jones, K. (1999). Preschool boys with oppositional defiant disorder: Clinical presentation and diagnostic change. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 838–845.Google Scholar
Stallings, P., & March, J. S. (1995). Assessment. In March, J. S. (Ed.), Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents (pp. 125–147). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Stattin, H., & Magnusson, D. (1989). The role of early aggressive behavior in the frequency, seriousness, and types of later crime. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 710–718.Google Scholar
Stieben, J., Lewis, M. D., Granic, I., Zelazo, P. D., Segalowitz, S., & Pepler, D. (2007). Neurophysiological correlates of emotion regulation distinguish subtypes of antisocial children. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 455–480.Google Scholar
Stipek, D., & Miles, S. (2008). Effects of aggression on achievement: Does conflict with the teacher make it worse? Child Development, 79, 1721–1735.Google Scholar
Stone, N. M., & Borkovec, T. D. (1975). The paradoxical effect of brief CS exposure on analogue phobic subjects. Behavior Research and Therapy, 13, 51–54.Google Scholar
Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., & Thomas, C. (1992). Caretakers seeking help for boys with disruptive and delinquent behavior. Comprehensive Mental Health Care, 2, 158–178.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. (1967). Aggressive behavior and physiological arousal as a function of provocation and the tendency to inhibit aggression. Journal of Personality, 35, 297–310.Google Scholar
Temcheff, C. E., Serbin, L. A., Martin-Storey, A., Stack, D. M., Hodgins, S., Ledingham, J., et al. (2008). Continuity and pathways from aggression in childhood to family violence in adulthood: A 30-year longitudinal study. Journal of Family Violence, 23, 231–242.Google Scholar
Tremblay, R. E., Japel, C., Perusse, D., McDuff, P, Boivin, M., Zoccolillo, M., et al. (1999). The search for the age of “onset” of physical aggression: Rousseau and Bandura revisited. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 9, 8–23.Google Scholar
Tremblay, R. E., Pagani-Kurtz, L., Masse, L. C., Vitaro, F., & Pihl, R. O. (1995). A bimodal preventative intervention for disruptive kindergarten boys: Its impact through mid-adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 560–568.Google Scholar
Tremblay, R. E., Pihl, R. O., Vitaro, F., & Dobkin, P. L. (1994). Predicting early onset of male antisocial behavior from preschool behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 732–739.Google Scholar
Turner, C. M., & Barrett, P. M. (2003). Does age play a role in structure of anxiety and depression in children and youths? An investigation of the tripartite model in three age cohorts. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 826–833.Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H., Schuengel, C., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (1999). Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 225–249.Google Scholar
Verkuil, A., Brosschot, J. F., Gebhardt, W., & Thayer, J. F. (in press). When worries make you sick: A review of perseverative cognition, the default stress response and somatic health. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology.Google Scholar
Vitaro, F., Barker, E. D., Bolvin, M., Brendgen, M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2006). Do early difficult temperament and harsh parenting differentially predict reactive and proactive aggression? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 681–691.Google Scholar
Vitaro, F., Brendgan, M., & Barker, E. D. (2006). Subtypes of aggressive behaviors: A developmental perspective. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 12–19.Google Scholar
Weisz, J. R., Doss, A. J., & Hawley, K. M. (2005). Youth psychotherapy outcome research: A review and critique of the evidence base. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 337–363.Google Scholar
Wichers, M., Peeters, F., Geschwind, N., Jacobs, N., Simons, C. J. P, Derom, C., et al. (2010). Unveiling patterns of affective responses in daily life may improve outcome prediction in depression: A momentary assessment study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 124, 191–195.Google Scholar
Woltering, S., Granic, I., Lamm, C., & Lewis, M. D. (2011). Neural changes associated with treatment outcome in children with externalizing problems. Biological Psychiatry, 70, 873–879.Google Scholar
Wood, J. J., McLeod, B. D., Sigman, M., Wei-Chin, H., & Chu, B. C. (2003). Parenting and childhood anxiety: Theory, empirical findings, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 134–151.Google Scholar
Wu, P., Hoven, C. W., Bird, H. R., Moore, R. E., Cohen, P., Alegria, M., et al. (1999). Depressive and disruptive disorders and mental health service utilization in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1081–1090.Google Scholar
Zoccolillo, M. (1992). Co-occurrence of conduct disorder and its adult outcomes with depressive and anxiety disorders: A review. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 547–556.Google Scholar