Hostname: page-component-6bf8c574d5-w79xw Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-22T21:08:29.729Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Relations of parenting style to Chinese children's effortful control, ego resilience, and maladjustment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 April 2009

Nancy Eisenberg ,
Lei Chang ,
Yue Ma  and
Xiaorui Huang
Nancy Eisenberg*
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Lei Chang
Affiliation:
Chinese University of Hong Kong
Yue Ma
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Xiaorui Huang
Affiliation:
Chinese University of Hong Kong
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Nancy Eisenberg, Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-1104; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to examine the relations of authoritative parenting and corporal punishment to Chinese first and second graders' effortful control (EC), impulsivity, ego resilience, and maladjustment, as well as mediating relations. A parent and teacher reported on children's EC, impulsivity, and ego resilience; parents reported on children's internalizing symptoms and their own parenting, and teachers and peers reported on children's externalizing symptoms. Authoritative parenting and low corporal punishment predicted high EC, and EC mediated the relation between parenting and externalizing problems. In addition, impulsivity mediated the relation of corporal punishment to externalizing problems. The relation of parenting to children's ego resilience was mediated by EC and/or impulsivity, and ego resilience mediated the relations of EC and impulsivity to internalizing problems.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 21 , Issue 2 , May 2009 , pp. 455 - 477
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Ahadi, S. A., Rothbart, M. K., & Ye, R. (1993). Children's temperament in the US and China: Similarities and differences. European Journal of Personality, 7, 359–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aksan, N., & Kochanska, G. (2004). Links between systems of inhibition from infancy to preschool years. Child Development, 75, 1477–1490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ang, R. P. (2006). Effects of parenting style on personal and social variables for Asian adolescent. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76, 503–511.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barber, B. K., Stolz, H. E., & Olsen, J. A. (2005). Parental support, psychological control, and behavioral control: Assessing relevance across time, culture, and method. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 70(40, Serial No. 282), 1–136.Google ScholarPubMed
Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75, 43–88.Google ScholarPubMed
Baumrind, D. (1996). Parenting: The discipline controversy revisited. Family Relations, 45, 405–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biederman, J., Rosenbaum, J. F., Hirshfeld, D. R., Faraone, S. V., Bolduc, E. A., Gersten, M., et al. (1990). Psychiatric correlates of behavioral inhibition in young children of parents with and without psychiatric disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 21–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In Collins, W. Andrew (Ed.), Development of cognition, affect, and social relations. The Minnesota symposia on child psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 39–101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Block, J., & Kremen, A. M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 349–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bond, M. H., & Chi, W.M.-Y. (1997). Values and moral behavior in mainland China. Psychologia, 40, 251–264.Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., & Ge, X. (2001). Linking parenting processes and self-regulation to psychological functioning and alcohol use during early adolescence. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 82–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bugental, D. B., & Grusec, J. E. (2006). Socialization processes. In Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.) & Damon, W. & Lerner, R. L. (Series Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 366–428). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Carter, A. S., Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Jones, S. M., & Little, T. D. (2003). The Infant–Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA): Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 495–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chan, D. W. (1994). The Chinese Ways of Coping Questionnaire: Assessing coping in secondary school teachers and students in Hong Kong. Psychological Assessment, 6, 108–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chan, D. W. (1997). Depressive symptoms and perceived competence among Chinese secondary school students in Hong Kong. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26, 303–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, L. (2003). Variable effects of children's aggression, social withdrawal, and prosocial leadership as functions of teacher beliefs and behaviors. Child Development, 74, 538–548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, L. (2004). The role of classrooms in contextualizing the relations of children's social behaviors to peer acceptance. Developmental Psychology, 40, 691–702.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, L., Lansford, J. E., Schwartz, D., & Farver, J. M. (2004). Marital quality, maternal depressed affect, harsh parenting, and child externalizing in Hong Kong Chinese families. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 311–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, L., Li, L., Li, K.K., Lui, H., Guo, B., Wang, Y., et al. (2005). Peer acceptance and self-perceptions of verbal and behavioral aggression and social withdrawal. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 48–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, L., Liu, H., Wang, Y., Fung, K.Y., Wen, Z., Li, H., et al. (2007). The mediating and moderating effects of teacher preference on the relations between students' social behaviors and peer acceptance. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 53, 603–630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, L., Liu, H., Wen, Z., Fung, K.Y., Wang, Y., & Xu, Y. (2004). Mediating teacher liking and moderating authoritative teaching on Chinese students' perceptions of antisocial and prosocial behaviors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 369–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chang, L., Schwartz, D., Dodge, K., & McBride-Chang, C. (2003). Harsh parenting in relation to child emotion regulation and aggression. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 598–606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chao, R. K. (1994). Beyond parental control and authoritarian parenting style: Understanding Chinese parenting through the cultural notion of training. Child Development, 65, 1111–1119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheah, C. L., & Rubin, K. H. (2004). European American and Mainland Chinese mothers' responses to aggression and social withdrawal in preschoolers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 83–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, X., Cen, G., Li, D., & He, Y. (2005). Social functioning and adjustment in Chinese children: The imprint of historical time. Child Development, 76, 182–195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, X., Dong, Q., & Zhou, H. (1997). Authoritative and Authoritarian parenting practices and social and school performance in Chinese children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 21, 855–873.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, X., & Li, B.-S. (2000). Depressed mood in Chinese children: Development significance for social and school adjustment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 472–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, X., Rubin, K. H., & Li, Z. (1995). Social functioning and adjustment in Chinese children: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 31, 531–539.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, X., Rubin, K. H., & Sun, Y. (1992). Social reputation and peer relationships in Chinese and Canadian children: A cross-cultural study. Child Development, 63, 1336–1343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, D. A., Martin, J. M., Powers, B., & Truglio, R. (1996). Modeling causal relations between academic and social competence and depression: A multitrait-multimethod longitudinal study of children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 258–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 558–577.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cumberland-Li, A., Eisenberg, N., & Reiser, M. (2004). Relations of young children's agreeableness and resiliency to effortful control and impulsivity. Social Development, 13, 191–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1, 16–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (1996). Physical discipline among African American and European American mothers: Links to children's externalizing behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 32, 1065–1072.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denham, S. A., Zoller, D., & Couchoud, E. (1994). Preschoolers' causal understanding of emotion and its socialization. Developmental Psychology, 30, 928–936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derryberry, D., & Reed, M. (2002). Anxiety-related attentional biases and their regulation by attentional control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 225–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1988). Arousal, affect, and attention as components of temperament. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 958–966.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1997). Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 633–652.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dix, T. (1991). The affective organization of parenting: Adaptive and maladaptive processes. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 3–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dmitrieva, J., Chen, C., Greenberger, E., & Gil-Rivas, V. (2004). Family relationships and adolescent psychosocial outcomes: Converging findings from eastern and western cultures. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 14, 425–447.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Coie, J. D., & Lynam, D. (2006). Aggression and antisocial behavior in youth. In Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.) & Damon, W. & Lerner, R. L. (Series Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 719–788). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Dunn, J., & Brown, J. R. (1991). Relationships, talk about feelings, and the development of affect regulation in early childhood. In Garber, J. & Dodge, K. A. (Eds.), The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation (pp. 89–108). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dusek, J. B., & Danko, M. (1994). Adolescent coping styles and perceptions of parental child rearing. Journal of Adolescent Research, 9, 412–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 241–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., & Reiser, M. et al. (2001). The relations of regulation and emotionality to children's externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. Child Development, 72, 1112–1134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., & Reiser, M. (2000). Dispositional emotionality and regulation: Their role in predicting quality of social functioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 136–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., & Reiser, M. (1999). Parental reactions to children's negative emotions: Longitudinal relations to quality of children's social functioning. Child Development, 70, 513–534.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Gershoff, E. T., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Cumberland, A. J., Losoya, S. H., et al. (2001). Mothers' emotional expressivity and children's behavior problems and social competence: Mediation through children's regulation. Developmental Psychology, 37, 475–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., & Vaughan, J. (2007). Effortful control and its socioemotional consequences. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 287–306). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Liew, J., & Pidada, S. (2001). The relations of parental emotional expressivity with the quality of Indonesian children's social functioning. Emotion, 1, 107–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Ma, Y., Chang, L., Zhou, Q., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. (2007). Relations of effortful control, reactive undercontrol, and anger to Chinese children's adjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 385–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Sadovsky, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Losoya, S. H., & Valiente, C., et al. (2005). The relations of problem behavior status to children's negative emotionality, effortful control, and impulsivity: Concurrent relations and prediction of change. Developmental Psychology, 41, 193–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Reiser, M., Cumberland, A., Shepard, S. A., et al. (2004). The relations of effortful control and impulsivity to children's resiliency and adjustment. Child Development, 75, 25–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Morris, A. S. (2002). Regulation, resiliency, and quality of social functioning. Self and Identity, 1, 121–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., Fabes, R. A., Smith, C. L., Reiser, M., Shepard, S. A., et al. (2003). The relations of effortful control and ego control to children's resiliency and social functioning. Developmental Psychology, 39, 761–776.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Zhou, Q., Spinrad, T. L., Valiente, C., Fabes, R. A., & Liew, J. (2005). Relations among positive parenting, children's effortful control, and externalizing problems: A three-wave longitudinal study. Child Development, 76, 1055–1071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erber, R., & Tesser, A. (1992). Task effort and the regulation of mood: The absorption hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 339–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eronen, S., Nurmi, J. E., & Salmela-Aro, K. (1997). Planning-oriented, avoidant, and impulsive social reaction styles: A person-oriented approach. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 34–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gartstein, M. A., & Fagot, B. I. (2003). Parental depression, parenting and family adjustment, and child effortful control: Explaining externalizing behaviors for preschool children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24, 143–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilliom, M., Shaw, D. S., Beck, J. E., Schonberg, M. A., & Lukon, J. L. (2002). Anger regulation in disadvantaged preschool boys: Strategies, antecedents, and the development of self-control. Developmental Psychology, 38, 222–235.Google ScholarPubMed
Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1997). Meta-emotion: How families communicate emotionally (p. 366). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Greenberger, E., Chen, C., Tally, S. R., & Dong, Q. (2000). Family, peer, and individual correlates of depressive symptomatology among U.S. and Chinese adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 209–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. A. (2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3–24). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Grusec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994). Impact of parental discipline methods on the child's internalization of values: A reconceptualization of current points of view. Developmental Psychology, 30, 4–19.Google Scholar
Halberstadt, A. G., Crisp, V. W., & Eaton, K. L. (1999). Family expressiveness: A retrospective and new directions for research. In Philippot, P. & Feldman, R. S. (Eds.), The social context of nonverbal behavior. Studies in emotion and social interaction (pp. 109–155). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hardy, D. F., Power, T. G., & Jaedicke, S. (1993). Examining the relation of parenting to children's coping with everyday stress. Child Development, 64, 1829–1841.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hart, C. H., Yang, C., Nelson, L. J., Robinson, C. C., Olsen, J. A., Nelson, D. A., et al. (2000). Peer acceptance in early childhood and subtypes of socially withdrawn behavior in China, Russia, and the United States. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 73–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huey, S. J. Jr., & Weisz, J. R. (1997). Ego control, ego resiliency, and the five-factor model as predictors of behavioral and emotional problems in clinic-referred children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 404–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122–1131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, L. M., Pratt, M. W., Hunsberger, B., & Pancer, S. M. (2005). Optimism as a mediator of the relation between perceived parental authoritativeness and adjustment among adolescents: Finding the sunny side of the street. Social Development, 14, 273–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Juffer, F., Stams, G.-J. J. M., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2004). Adopted children's problem behavior is significantly related to their ego resiliency, ego control, and sociometric status. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 697–706.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kagan, J. (1998). Biology and the child. In Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.) & Damon, W. (Series Ed.), Social, emotional and personality development: Vol. 3. Handbook of child psychology (pp. 177–235). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Kendall, P., MacDonald, J., & Treadwell, K. (1998). Parent ratings of anxiety in children: Development and validation of the CBCL-A. Unpublished manuscript, Temple University.Google Scholar
Kitayama, S. (2002). Culture and basic psychological processes—Toward a system view of culture: Comment on Oyserman et al. (2002). Psychological Bulletin, 128, 89–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., & Knaack, A. (2003). Effortful control as a personality characteristic of young children: Antecedents, correlates, and consequences. Journal of Personality, 71, 1087–1112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36, 220–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lansford, J. E., Chang, L., Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Oburu, P., & Palmérus, K., et al. (2005). Physical discipline and children's adjustment: Cultural normativeness as a moderator. Child Development, 76, 1234–1246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lemery, K. S., Essex, M. J., & Smider, N. A. (2002). Revealing the relation between temperament and behavior problem symptoms by eliminating measurement confounding: Expert ratings and factor analyses. Child Development, 73, 867–882.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lengua, L. J., West, S. G., & Sandler, I. N. (1998). Temperament as a predictor of symptomatology in children: Addressing contamination of measures. Child Development, 69, 164–181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieber, E., Fung, H., & Leung, P. W-L. (2006). Chinese child-rearing beliefs: Key dimensions and contributions to the development of culture-appropriate measurement. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 9, 140–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, X., Kurita, H., Guo, C., Miyake, Y., Ze, J., & Cao, H. (1999). Risk factors of behavior and emotional problems among Chinese children aged 6 through 11 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 708–715.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, X., Kurita, H., Guo, C., Tachimori, H., Ze, J., & Okawa, M. (2000). Behavioral and emotional problems in Chinese children: Teacher reports for ages 6 to 11. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 253–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lochman, E., & the Conduct Problems Prevention Research Cluster. (1995). Screening of child behavior problems for prevention programs at school entry. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 549–559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynam, D. R. (1997). Pursuing the psychopath: Capturing the fledgling psychopath in a nomological net. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 425–438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., Fritz, M. S., Williams, J., & Lockwood, C. M. (2007). Distribution of the product confidence limits for the indirect effect program PRODCLIN. Behavioral Research Methods, 39, 384–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A., Morison, P., & Pelligrini, D. (1985). A revised class play method of peer assessment. Child Development, 21, 523–533.Google Scholar
Miller, J. G. (2002). Bringing culture to basic psychological theory—Beyond individualism and collectivism: Comment on Oyserman et al. (2002). Psychological Bulletin, 128, 97–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muris, P., & Ollendick, T. H. (2005). The role of temperament in the etiology of child psychopathology. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, 271–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, K. T., & Kochanska, G. (2002). Effortful control: Factor structure and relation to externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 503–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2001). Mplus: Statistical analyses with latent variables. User's guide. Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Nelson, D. A., Hart, C. H., Yang, C., Olsen, J. A., & Jin, S. (2006). Aversive parenting in China: Associations with child physical and relational aggression. Child Development, 77, 554–572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2005). Predicting individual differences in attention, memory, and planning in first graders from experiences at home, child care, and school. Developmental Psychology, 41, 99–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Brien, B. S., & Frick, P. J. (1996). Reward dominance: Associations with anxiety, conduct problems, and psychopathy in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 223–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Connor, T. G., Deater-Deckard, K., Fulker, D., Rutter, M., & Plomin, R. (1998). Genotype–environment correlations in late childhood and early adolescence: Antisocial behavioral problems and coercive parenting. Developmental Psychology, 34, 970–981.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oldehinkel, A. J., Hartman, C. A., De Winter, A. F., Veenstra, R., & Ormel, J. (2004). Temperament profiles associated with internalizing and externalizing problems in preadolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 421–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olson, S. L., Sameroff, A. J., Kerr, D. C. R., Lopez, N. L., & Wellman, H. M. (2005). Developmental foundations of externalizing problems in young children: The role of effortful control. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 25–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (1996). Inhibition in ADHD, aggressive, and anxious children: A biologically based model of child psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 19–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 3–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parpal, M., & Maccoby, E. E. (1985). Maternal responsiveness and subsequent child compliance. Child Development, 56, 1326–1334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearson, E., & Rao, N. (2003). Socialization goals, parenting practices, and peer competence in Chinese and English preschoolers. Early Child Development and Care, 173, 131–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phelps, D. (2005). Academic achievement of children in China: The 2002 Fulbright experience. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 233–239.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pickering, A. D., & Gray, J. A. (1999). The neuroscience of personality. In Pervin, L. & John, O. (Eds.), Handbook of personality (pp. 277–299). San Francisco, CA: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Porter, C. L., Hart, C. H., Yang, C., Robinson, C. C., Olsen, S. F., & Zeng, Q., et al. (2005). A comparative study of child temperament and parenting in Beijing, China and the western United States. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 541–551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Power, T. G. (2004). Stress and coping in childhood: The parents' role. Parenting: Science and Practice, 4, 271–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robins, R. W., John, O. P., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Stouthamer Loeber, M. (1996). Resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled boys: Three replicable personality types. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 157–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, C. C., Mandleco, B., Olsen, F. S., & Hart, H. C. (1995). Authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting practices: Development of a new measure. Psychological Reports, 77, 819–830.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., & Hershey, K. L. (1994). Temperament and social behavior in childhood. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 40, 21–39.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The children's behavior questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394–1408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.) & Damon, W. & Lerner, R. M. (Series Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 99–166). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2006). Temperament, attention, and developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Developmental neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 465–501). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rudy, D., & Grusec, J. E. (2006). Authoritarian parenting in individualist and collectivist groups: Associations with maternal emotion and cognition and children's self-esteem. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 68–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, D., Chang, L., & Farver, J. M. (2001). Correlates of victimization in Chinese children's peer groups. Developmental Psychology, 37, 520–532.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2003). Adolescents' emotion regulation in daily fife: Links to depressive symptoms and problem behavior. Child Development, 74, 1869–1880.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skinner, E. A., & Wellborn, J. G. (1994). Coping during childhood and adolescence: A motivational perspective. In Lerner, R., Featherman, D., & Perlmuter, M. (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 12, pp. 91–123). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Sorkhabi, N. (2005). Applicability of Baumrind's parent typology to collective cultures: Analysis of cultural explanations of parent socialization effects. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 552–563.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stewart, S. M., Kennard, B. D., Lee, P. W. H., Hughes, C. W., Mayes, T. L., Emslie, G. J., et al. (2004). A cross-cultural investigation of cognitions and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 248–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S. D., Darling, N., Mounts, N. S., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1994). Over-time changes in adjustment and competence among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families. Child Development, 65, 754–770.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, L., Mounts, N. S., Lamborn, S. D., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1991). Authoritative parenting and adolescent adjustment across varied ecological niches. Journal of Research in Adolescence, 1, 9–36.Google Scholar
Triandis, H. C. (1994). Major cultural syndromes and emotion. In Kitayama, S. & Markus, H. R. (Eds.), Emotion and culture: Empirical studies of mutual influence (pp. 285–306). Washington, DC: American Psychology Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valiente, C., Eisenberg, N., Smith, C. L., Reiser, M., Fabes, R. A., Losoya, S., et al. (2003). The relations of effortful control and reactive control to children's externalizing problems: A longitudinal assessment. Journal of Personality, 71, 1171–1196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vasey, M. W., EI-Hag, N., & Daleiden, E. L. (1996). Anxiety and the processing of emotionally threatening stimuli: Distinctive patterns of selective attention among high- and low-test-anxious children. Child Development, 67, 1173–1185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, L., Chen, X., Chen, H., Cui, L., & Li, M. (2006). Affect and maternal parenting as predictors of adaptive and maladaptive behaviors in Chinese children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 30, 158–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weine, A. M., Phillips, J. S., & Achenbach, T. M. (1995). Behavioral and emotional problems among Chinese and American children: Parent and teacher reports for ages 6 to 13. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 23, 619–639.Google ScholarPubMed
Wu, P., Robinson, C. C., Yang, C., Hart, C. H., Olsen, S. F., Porter, C. L., et al. (2002). Similarities and differences in mothers' parenting of preschoolers in China and the United States. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26, 481–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xu, Y., Farver, J. A. M., Zhang, Z., Zeng, Q., Yu, L., & Cai, B. (2005). Mainland Chinese parenting styles and parent–child interaction. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 524–531.Google Scholar
Yu, R. (2002). On the reform of elementary school education in China. Educational Exploration, 129, 56–57.Google Scholar
Zhang, W., & Fuligni, A. J. (2006). Authority, autonomy, and family relationships among adolescents in urban and rural China. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 527–537.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhou, Q., Eisenberg, N., Wang, Y., & Reiser, M. (2004). Chinese children's effortful control and dispositional anger/frustration: Relations to parenting styles and children's social functioning. Developmental Psychology, 40, 352–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhou, Q., Wang, Y., Eisenberg, N., Wolchik, S., Tein, J.-W., & Deng, X. (2008). Relations of parenting and temperament to Chinese children's experience of negative life events, coping efficacy, and externalizing problems. Child Development, 79, 493–513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed