Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T06:52:21.215Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Regulating sadness and fear from outside and within: Mothers' emotion socialization and adolescents' parasympathetic regulation predict the development of internalizing difficulties

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 November 2014

Paul D. Hastings ,
Bonnie Klimes-Dougan ,
Kimberly T. Kendziora ,
Ann Brand  and
Carolyn Zahn-Waxler
Paul D. Hastings*
Affiliation:
University of California, Davis
Bonnie Klimes-Dougan
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota
Kimberly T. Kendziora
Affiliation:
American Institutes of Research
Ann Brand
Affiliation:
University of Wisconsin, Stout
Carolyn Zahn-Waxler
Affiliation:
University of Wisconsin, Madison
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Paul D. Hastings, Center for Mind & Brain, University of California, Davis, 267 Cousteau Place, Davis, CA 95618; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Multilevel models of developmental psychopathology implicate both characteristics of the individual and their rearing environment in the etiology of internalizing problems and disorders. Maladaptive regulation of fear and sadness, the core of anxiety and depression, arises from the conjoint influences of ineffective parasympathetic regulation of emotion and ineffective emotion socialization experiences. In 171 youths (84 female, M = 13.69 years, SD = 1.84), we measured changes of respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) in response to sadness- and fear-inducing film clips and maternal supportive and punitive responses to youths' internalizing emotions. Youths and mothers reported on youths' internalizing problems and anxiety and depression symptoms concurrently and 2 years later at Time 2. Maternal supportive emotion socialization predicted fewer, and punitive socialization predicted more, mother-reported internalizing problems at Time 2 only for youths who showed RSA suppression to fear-inducing films. More RSA suppression to sadness-inducing films predicted more youth-reported internalizing problems at Time 2 in girls only. In addition, less supportive emotion socialization predicted more youth-reported depression symptoms at Time 2 only for girls who showed more RSA suppression to sadness. RSA suppression to sadness versus fear might reflect different patterns of atypical parasympathetic regulation of emotional arousal, both of which increase the risk for internalizing difficulties in youths, and especially girls, who lack maternal support for regulating emotions.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 26 , Special Issue 4pt2: Multilevel Developmental Perspectives Toward Understanding Internalizing Psychopathology: Current Research and Future Directions , November 2014 , pp. 1369 - 1384
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Integrative guide for the 1991 CBCL/4–18, YSR, and TRF profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., & Howell, C. T. (1987). Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 213–232.Google Scholar
Alloy, L. B., Kelly, K. A., Mineka, S., & Clements, C. M. (1990). Comorbidity of anxiety and depressive disorders: A helplessness–hopelessness perspective. In Maser, J. D. & Cloninger, C. R. (Eds.), Comorbidity of mood and anxiety disorders (pp. 499–543). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 57–87.Google Scholar
Arnone, D., McKie, S., Elliott, R., Thomas, E. J., Downey, D., Juhasz, G., et al. (2012). Increased amygdala responses to sad but not fearful faces in major depression: Relation to mood state and pharmacological treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 841–850.Google Scholar
Auerbach, R. P., & Hankin, B. L. (2012). Cognitive vulnerability, stress, and symptom specificity in children and adolescents. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 5, 237–239.Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P. (2012). Physiological markers of emotion and behavior dysregulation in externalizing psychopathology. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 77, 79–86.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908.Google Scholar
Bosch, N. M., Riese, H., Ormel, J., Verhulst, F., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2009). Stressful life events and depressive symptoms in young adolescents: Modulation by respiratory sinus arrhytmia? The TRAILS study. Biological Psychology, 81, 40–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyce, W. T., Quas, J., Alkon, A., Smider, N., Essex, M., & Kupfer, D. J. (2001). Autonomic reactivity and psychopathology in middle childhood. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 144–150.Google Scholar
Brody, L. R., & Hall, J. A. (2000). Gender, emotion, and expression. In Lewis, M. & Haviland-Jones, J. M. (Eds.), The handbook of emotions (2nd ed., pp. 338–349). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bruner, J. S. (1975). From communication to language: A psychological perspective. Cognition, 3, 255–287.Google Scholar
Bylsma, L. M., Morris, B. H., & Rottenberg, J. (2008). A meta-analysis of emotional reactivity in major depressive disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 676–691.Google Scholar
Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Larsen, J. T., Poehlmann, K. M., & Ito, T. A. (2000). The psychophysiology of emotion. In Lewis, R. & Haviland-Jones, J. M. (Eds.), The handbook of emotion (2nd ed., pp. 173–191). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Cassano, M., Perry-Parrish, C., & Zeman, J. (2007). Influence of gender on parental socialization of children's sadness regulation. Social Development, 16, 210–231.Google Scholar
Chaplin, C., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2005). Parental socialization of emotion expression: Gender differences and relations to child adjustment. Emotion, 5, 80–88.Google Scholar
Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A. (2013). Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 735–765.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2008). Integrating biological processes into the design and evaluation of preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 737–1022.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Curtis, W. J. (2007). Multilevel perspectives on pathways to resilient functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 627–629.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2009). The past achievements and future promises of developmental psychopathology: The coming of age of a discipline. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 16–25.Google Scholar
Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., McCauley, E., Smith, C. J., Stevens, A. L., & Sylvers, P. (2005). Psychological, autonomic, and serotonergic correlates of parasuicide among adolescent girls. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1105–1127.Google Scholar
Dahl, R. E., Silk, J. S., & Siegle, G. J. (2012). Physiological measures of emotion dysregulation: Investigating the development of affective disorders. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 77, 69–78.Google Scholar
De Los Reyes, A., Salas, S., Menzer, M. M., & Daruwala, S. E. (2013). Criterion validity of interpreting scores from multi-informant statistical interactions as measures of informant discrepancies in psychological assessments of children and adolescents. Psychological Assessment, 25, 509–519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denham, S. A., Bassett, H. H., & Wyatt, T. (in press). The socialization of emotional competence. In Grusec, J. E. & Hastings, P. D. (Eds.), Handbook of socialization (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N. (2010). Empathy-related responding: Links with self-regulation, moral judgment, and moral behavior. In Eisenberg, N. (Ed.), Prosocial motives, emotions, and behavior: The better angels of our nature (pp. 129–148). Washington DC: American Psychological Association Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Pyschological Inquiry, 9, 241–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ekman, P. (1999). Basic emotions. In Dalgleish, T. & Power, M. (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and emotion. Sussex: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Boyce, W. T., Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to the environment: An evolutionary–neurodevelopmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 7–28.Google Scholar
El-Sheikh, M., Keiley, M., Erath, S., & Dyer, J. W. (2013). Marital conflict and growth in children's internalizing symptoms: The role of autonomic nervous system activity. Developmental Psychology, 49, 92–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., & Whitson, S. A. (2006). Longitudinal relations between marital conflict and child adjustment: Vagal regulation as a protective factor. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 30–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fabes, R. A., Poulin, R. E., Eisenberg, N., & Madden-Derdich, D. A. (2002). The Coping with Children's Negative Emotions Scale (CCNES): Psychometric properties and relations with children's emotional competence. Marriage and Family Review, 34, 285–310.Google Scholar
Fortunato, C. K., Gatze-Kopp, L. M., & Ram, N. (2013). Associations between respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity and internalizing and externalizing symptoms are emotion specific. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavior Neuroscience, 13, 238–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frijda, N. H. (1994). Emotions are functional, most of the time. In Ekman, P. & Davidson, R. J. (Eds.), The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions (pp. 112–122). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Garside, R. B., & Klimes-Dougan, B. (2002). Socialization of discrete negative emotions: Gender differences and links with psychological distress. Sex Roles, 47, 115–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ge, X., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (1994). Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 30, 467–483.Google Scholar
Giletta, M., Scholte, R. H., Burk, W. J., Engels, R. C. M. E., Larsen, J. K., Prinstein, M. J., et al. (2011). Similarity in depressive symptoms in adolescents' friendship dyads: Selection or socialization? Developmental Psychology, 47, 1804–1814.Google Scholar
Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1996). Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: Theoretical models and preliminary data. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 243–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1997). Meta-emotion: How families communicate emotionally. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Graziano, P., & Derefinko, K. (2013). Cardiac vagal control and children's adaptive functioning: A meta-analysis. Biological Psychology, 94, 22–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B. L., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2005). Development of psychopathology: A vulnerability-stress perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastings, P. D., & De, I. (2008). Parasympathetic regulation and parental socialization of emotion: Biopsychosocial processes of adjustment in preschoolers. Social Development, 17, 211–238.Google Scholar
Hastings, P. D., & Guyer, A. E. (in press). The physiological underpinnings of child psychopathology. In Schneider, B. H. (Ed.), Child psychopathology. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hastings, P. D., Kahle, S., & Han, H-S. G. (2014). Developmental affective psychophysiology: Using physiology to inform our understanding of emotional development. In Lagatutt, K. (Ed.), Children and emotion: New insights into developmental affective science (pp. 13–28). Basel, Switzerland: Karger.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hastings, P. D., & Miller, J. G. (2014). Autonomic regulation, polyvagal theory, and children's prosocial development. In Padilla-Walker, L. M. & Carlo, G. (Eds.), The complexities of raising prosocial children (pp. 112–127). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hastings, P. D., Nuselovici, J. N., Klimes-Dougan, B., Kendziora, K. T., Usher, B. A., Ho, M-h. R., et al. (2009). Dysregulated coherence of subjective and cardiac emotional activation in adolescents with internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1348–1356.Google Scholar
Hastings, P. D., Shirtcliff, E. A., Klimes-Dougan, B., Allison, A. L., DeRose, L., Kendziora, K. T., et al. (2011). Allostasis and the development of internalizing and externalizing problems: Changing relations with physiological systems across adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 1149–1165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hastings, P. D., Sullivan, C., McShane, K. E., Coplan, R. J., Utendale, W. T., & Vyncke, J. D. (2008). Parental socialization, vagal regulation and preschoolers' anxious difficulties: Direct mothers and moderated fathers. Child Development, 79, 45–64.Google Scholar
Hastings, P. D., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Usher, B. A. (2007). Cardiovascular and affective reactions to social stress in adolescents with internalizing and externalizing problems. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 1–11.Google Scholar
Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). Four Factor Index of Social Status. Unpublished manuscript, Yale University, Department of Sociology.Google Scholar
Hopkins, J., Lavigne, J. V., Gouze, K. R., LeBailly, S. A., & Bryant, F. B. (2013). Multi-domain models of risk factors for depression and anxiety symptoms in preschoolers: Evidence for common and specific factors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 1–18.Google Scholar
Howes, P. W., Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L., & Rogosch, F. A. (2000). Affective, organizational, and relational characteristics of maltreating families: A systems perspective. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 95–110. doi:10.1037//0893-3200.14.1.95 Google Scholar
Hunter, E. C., Katz, L. F., Schortt, J. W., Davis, B., Leve, C., Allen, N. B., et al. (2011). How do I feel about feelings? Emotion socialization in families of depressed and healthy adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 428–441.Google Scholar
Katz, L. F., & Hunter, E. C. (2007). Maternal meta-emotion philosophy and adolescent depressive symptomatology. Social Development, 16, 343–360.Google Scholar
Klimes-Dougan, B., Brand, A. E., Zahn-Waxler, C., Usher, B., Hastings, P. D., Kendziora, K., et al. (2007). Parental emotion socialization in adolescence: Differences in sex, age, and problem status. Social Development, 16, 326–342.Google Scholar
Klimes-Dougan, B., Hastings, P. D., Granger, D. A., Usher, B. A., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2001). Adrenocortical activity in at-risk and normally developing adolescents: Individual difference in salivary cortisol basal levels, diurnal variation, and responses to social challenges. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 695–719.Google Scholar
Klimes-Dougan, B., & Zeman, J. (2007). Introduction to the special issue of social development: Emotion socialization in childhood and adolescence. Social Development, 16, 203–209.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Kim, S., Barry, R. A., & Philibert, R. A. (2011). Children's genotypes interact with maternal responsive care in predicting children's competence: Diathesis–stress or differential susceptibility? Development and Psychopathology, 23, 605–616.Google Scholar
Kogan, A., Gruber, J., Shallcross, A. J., Ford, B. Q., & Mauss, I. B. (2013). Too much of a good thing? Cardiac vagal tone's nonlinear relationship with well-being. Emotion, 13, 599–604.Google Scholar
Krantz, D. S., Kop, W. J., Gabbay, F. H., Rozanski, A., Barnard, M., Klein, J., et al. (1996). Circadian variation of ambulatory myocardial ischemia: Triggering by daily activities and evidence for endogenous circadian component. Circulation, 93, 1364–1371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kriebig, S. D. (2010). Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review. Biological Psychology, 84, 394–421.Google Scholar
Liew, J., Johnson, A. Y., Smith, T. R., & Thoemmes, F. (2011). Parental expressivity, child physiological and behavioral regulation, and child adjustment: Testing a three-path mediation model. Early Education and Development, 22, 549–573.Google Scholar
Magai, C. (1996). Emotions as a child. Unpublished manuscript, Long Island University, Brooklyn.Google Scholar
Malatesta-Magai, C. (1991). Development of emotion expression during infancy: General course and patterns of individual difference. In Garber, J. & Dodge, K. A. (Eds.), Cambridge studies in social and emotional development (pp. 49–68). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Marsh, P., Beauchaine, T. P., & Williams, B. (2008). Dissociation of sad facial expression and autonomic nervous system responding in boys with disruptive behavior disorders. Psychophysiology, 45, 100–110.Google Scholar
Miller, J. G., Chochol, C., Nuselovici, J. N., Utendale, W. T., Simard, M., & Hastings, P. D. (2013). Children's dynamic RSA change during anger and its relations with parenting, temperament, and control of aggression. Biological Psychology, 92, 417–425.Google Scholar
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16, 361–388.Google Scholar
Natsuaki, M. N., Klimes-Dougan, B., Ge, X., Shirtcliff, E. A., Hastings, P. D., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2009). Early pubertal maturation and internalizing problems in adolescence: Sex differences in the role of cortisol reactivity to interpersonal stress. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38, 513–524.Google Scholar
Nazzaro, P., Seccia, T., Vulpis, V., Schirosi, G., Serio, G., Battista, L., et al. (2005). Measures of total stress-induced blood pressure responses are associated with vascular damage. American Journal of Hypertension, 18, 1226–1232.Google Scholar
Nederhof, E., Belsky, J., Ormel, J., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2012). Effects of divorce on Dutch boys' and girls' externalizing behavior in Gene × Environment perspective: Diathesis stress or differential susceptibility in the Dutch Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey study? Development and Psychopathology, 24, 929–939.Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424–443.Google Scholar
Nottelmann, E. D., & Jensen, P. S. (1995). Comorbidity of disorders in children and adolescents: Developmental perspectives. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 17, 109–155.Google Scholar
Obradovic, J., Bush, N. R., & Boyce, W. T. (2011). The interactive effect of marital conflict and stress reactivity on externalizing and internalizing symptoms: The role of laboratory stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 101–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obradovic, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Adler, N. E., & Boyce, W. T. (2010). Biological sensitivity to context: The interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Development, 81, 270–289.Google Scholar
O'Neal, C., & Malatesta-Magai, C. (2005). Do parents respond in different ways when children feel different emotions? The emotional context of parenting. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 467–487.Google Scholar
Parra, G. R., Olsen, J. P., Buckholdt, K. E., Jobe-Shields, L., & Davis, G. L. (2010). A pilot study of the development of a measure assessing adolescent reactions to parents in the context of emotion socialization. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 596–606.Google Scholar
Perry, N. B., Mackler, J. S., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2014). A transactional analysis of the relation between maternal sensitivity and child vagal regulation. Developmental Psychology, 50, 784–793.Google Scholar
Porges, S. W. (2011). The polyvagal theory: Neurophysiological foundations of emotions, attachment, communication, and self-regulation. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Poulin, F., & Boivin, M. (2000). The role of proactive and reactive aggression in the formation and development of boys' friendships. Developmental Psychology, 36, 233–240.Google Scholar
Rainville, P., Bechara, A., Naqvi, N., & Damasio, A. R. (2006). Basic emotions are associated with distinct patterns of cardiovascular reactivity. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 61, 5–18.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The Children's Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394–1408.Google Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., & Flynn, M. (2007). Childhood adversity and youth depression: The role of gender and pubertal status. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 497–521.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. (2010). A unified theory of development: A dialectic integration of nature and nurture. Child Development, 81, 6–22.Google Scholar
Schwartz, O. S., Dudgeon, P., Sheeber, L. B., Yap, M. B. H., Simmons, J. G., & Allen, N. B. (2011). Observed maternal responses to adolescent behavior predict onset of major depression. Behavior Research and Therapy, 49, 331–338.Google Scholar
Schwartz, O. S., Sheeber, L. B., Dudgeon, P., & Allen, N. B. (2012). Emotion socialization within the family environment and adolescent depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 447–453.Google Scholar
Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab-Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): Description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38.Google Scholar
St. Clair, M. C., Goodyer, I. M., Dunn, V., Herbert, J., Jones, P. B., & Croudace, T. (2012). Depressive symptoms during adolescence: Comparison between epidemiological and high-risk sampling. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47, 1333–1341.Google Scholar
Starr, L. R., & Davila, J. (2012). Responding to anxiety in rumination of hopelessness: Mechanism of anxiety-depression symptom of co-occurrence? Cognitive Theory and Research, 36, 321–337.Google Scholar
Stocker, C. M, Richmond, M. K., & Rhoades, G. K. (2007). Family emotional processes and adolescents' adjustment. Social Development, 16, 310–325.Google Scholar
Tackett, J. L., Herzhoff, K., Reardon, K. W., & Smack, A. J. (2013). The relevance of informant discrepancies for the assessment of adolescent personality pathology. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 20, 378–392.Google Scholar
Turner, S. M., Beidel, D. C., & Epstein, L. H. (1991). Vulnerability and risk for anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 5, 151–166.Google Scholar
Wachs, T. D., & Gandour, M. J. (1983). Temperament, environment, and six month cognitive-intellectual development: A test of the organismic specificity hypothesis. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 6, 135–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weems, C. F., Zakem, A. H., Costa, N. M., Cannon, M. F., & Watts, S. E. (2005). Physiological response and childhood anxiety: Association with symptoms of anxiety disorders and cognitive bias. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 712–723.Google Scholar
Wilcox, R. R. (2012). Introduction to robust estimation and hypothesis testing. Waltham, MA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., Crick, N. R., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Woods, K. E. (2006). The origins and development of psychopathology in females and males. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theory and method (2nd ed., pp. 76–138). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., Klimes-Dougan, B., Hastings P. D., Duggal, S., Gruber, R., & Usher, B. A. (2001). The role of emotion in the development of psychopathology in adolescence. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Mental Health, Intramural Research Program.Google Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., Klimes-Dougan, B., & Slattery, M. J. (2000). Internalizing problems of childhood and adolescence: Prospects, pitfalls, and progress in understanding the development of anxiety and depression. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 443–466.Google Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Marceau, K. (2008). Disorders of childhood and adolescence: Gender and psychopathology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 275–303.Google Scholar