Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-29T11:46:10.601Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Prenatal drug exposure effects on subsequent vulnerability to drug abuse

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 August 2006

MEYER D. GLANTZ  and
JESSICA CAMPBELL CHAMBERS
MEYER D. GLANTZ
Affiliation:
National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health
JESSICA CAMPBELL CHAMBERS
Affiliation:
National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Research has shown that both prenatal alcohol and tobacco exposure are associated with increased risk of significant adverse medical, developmental, and behavioral outcomes including substance abuse. Research on the outcomes of prenatal exposure to illicit drugs (PNDE) has also found increased physical and behavioral problems for gestationally drug-exposed children. However, a clear picture has not emerged on whether the consequences of PNDE are independent from those associated with having a substance abusing parent and whether PNDE increases vulnerability to drug abuse. Because of its typical co-occurrence with factors inherent in having a drug-abusing parent, PNDE is at least a marker of significant increased risk for a range of negative outcomes including greater vulnerability to substance abuse. Although a review of the relevant research literatures indicates that the direct consequences of PNDE appear to be generally both subtle and nonglobal, PNDE does appear to have negative developmental and behavioral outcomes, and there is evidence that it is a modest direct contributor to increased substance abuse vulnerability.The viewpoints expressed in this article do not necessarily represent the National Institutes of Health or the Department of Health and Human Services. The authors thank Vincent Smeriglio for the information and suggestions he provided. The views expressed in this article do not necessarily represent his views.

Type
Research Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 18 , Issue 3 , September 2006 , pp. 893 - 922
Copyright
© 2006 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Accornero, V. H., Morrow, C. E., Bandstra, E. S., Johnson, A. L., & Anthony, J. C. (2002). Behavioral outcome of preschoolers exposed prenatally to cocaine: Role of maternal behavioral health. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 27, 259–269.Google Scholar
Accornero, V. H., Morrow, C. E., Xue, L., Anthony, J. C., & Bandstra, E. S. (2005). Prenatal cocaine exposure and examiner-rated behavior at age 7. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Pediatric Research, Washington, DC.
Achenbach, T. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Alessandri, S. M., Sullivan, M. W., Bendersky, M., & Lewis, M. (1995). Temperament in cocaine-exposed infants. In M. Lewis & M. Bendersky (Eds.), Mothers, babies and cocaine: The role of toxins in development (pp. 273–286). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Arendt, R. E., Short, E., Singer, L. T., Minnes, S., Hewitt, J., Flynn, S., et al. (2004). Children prenatally exposed to cocaine: Developmental outcomes and environmental risks at seven years of age. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 25, 83–90.Google Scholar
Arria, A. M., Derauf, C., LaGasse, L. L., Grant, P., Shah, R., Smith, L., et al. (2006). Methamphetamine and other substance use during pregnancy: Preliminary estimates from the Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle (IDEAL) study. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 10, 293–302.Google Scholar
Avenevoli, S., Conway, K. P., & Merikangas, K. R. (2005). Familial risk factors for substance use disorders. In J. L. Hudson & R. M. Rapee (Eds.), Current thinking on psychopathology and the family (pp. 169–194). Boston: Elsevier.
Bada, H. S., Bauer, C. R., Shankaran, S., Lester, B., Gard, C. C., Wright, L. L., et al. (2005). Low birth weight and preterm births: Etiologic fraction attributable to prenatal drug exposure. Journal of Perinatology, 25, 631–637.Google Scholar
Bada, H. S., Bauer, C. R., Shankaran, S., Lester, B., Wright, L. L., Das, A., et al. (2002). Central and autonomic system signs with in utero drug exposure. Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal Neonatal Edition, 87, F106–F112.Google Scholar
Bada, H. S., Das, A., Bauer, C. R., Shankaran, S., Lester, B. M., Wright, L. L., et al. (2002). Gestational cocaine exposure and intrauterine growth: Maternal lifestyle study. Obstetetrics and Gynecology, 100, 916–924.Google Scholar
Baer, J. S., Sampson, P. D., Barr, H. M., Connor, P. D., & Streissguth, A. P. (2003). A 21-year longitudinal analysis of the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on young adult drinking. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 377–385.Google Scholar
Ball, S. A., Mayes, L. C., DeToso, J. A., & Schottenfeld, R. S. (1997). Maternal attentiveness of cocaine abusers during child-based assessments. American Journal on Addictions, 6, 135–143.Google Scholar
Bandstra, E. S., Morrow, C. E., Anthony, J. C., Accornero, V. H., & Fried, P. A. (2001). Longitudinal investigation of task persistence and sustained attention in children with prenatal cocaine exposure. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 23, 545–559.Google Scholar
Bandstra, E. S., Morrow, C. E., Anthony, J. C., Churchill, S. S., Chitwood, D. C., Steele, B. W., et al. (2001). Intrauterine growth of full-term infants: Impact of prenatal cocaine exposure. Pediatrics, 108, 1309–1319.Google Scholar
Bandstra, E. S., Morrow, C. E., Vogel, A. L., Fifer, R. C., Ofir, A. Y., Dausa, A. T., et al. (2002). Longitudinal influence of prenatal cocaine exposure on child language functioning. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24, 297–308.Google Scholar
Bandstra, E. S., Vogel, A. L., Morrow, C. E., Xue, L., & Anthony, J.C. (2004). Severity of prenatal cocaine exposure and child language functioning through age seven years: A longitudinal latent growth curve analysis. Substance Use and Misuse, 39, 25–59.Google Scholar
Bard, K. A., Coles, C. D., Platzman, K. A., & Lynch, M. E. (2000). The effects of prenatal drug exposure, term status, and caregiving on arousal and arousal modulation in 8-week-old infants. Developmental Psychobiology, 36, 194–212.Google Scholar
Bauer, C. R., Langer, J. C., Shankaran, S., Bada, H. S., Lester, B. M., Wright, L. L., Krause-Steinrauf, H., et al. (2005). Acute neonatal effects of cocaine exposure during pregnancy. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 159, 824–834.Google Scholar
Bauman, P. S., & Dougherty, F. E. (1983). Drug-addicted mothers' parenting and their children's development. International Journal of the Addictions, 18, 291–302.Google Scholar
Beeghly, M., Frank, D. A., Rose-Jacobs, R., Cabral, H., & Tronick, E. (2003). Level of prenatal cocaine exposure and infant–caregiver attachment behavior. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 25, 23–38.Google Scholar
Behnke, M., Eyler, F. D., Garvan, C. W., & Wobie, K. (2001). The search for congenital malformations in newborns with fetal cocaine exposure. Pediatrics, 107, e74.Google Scholar
Behnke, M., Eyler, F. D., Garvan, C. W., Wobie, K., & Weir, H. (2002). Cocaine exposure and developmental outcome from birth to 6 months. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24, 283–295.Google Scholar
Bendersky, M., Bennett, D., & Lewis, M. (2006). Aggression at age 5 as a function of prenatal exposure to cocaine, gender, and environmental risk. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31, 71–84.Google Scholar
Bendersky, M., Gambini, G., Lastella, A., Bennett, D. S., & Lewis, M. (2003). Inhibitory motor control at five years as a function of prenatal cocaine exposure. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 24, 345–351.Google Scholar
Bendersky, M., & Lewis, M. (1998). Prenatal cocaine exposure and impulse control at two years. Annuals of the New York Academy of Science, 846, 365–367.Google Scholar
Benjet, C., Azar, S. T., & Kuersten-Hogan, R. (2003). Evaluating the parental fitness of psychiatrically diagnosed individuals: Advocating a functional–contextual analysis of parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 238–251.Google Scholar
Bennett, D. S., Bendersky, M., & Lewis, M. (2002). Children's intellectual and emotional–behavioral adjustment at 4 years as a function of cocaine exposure, maternal characteristics, and environmental risk. Developmental Psychology, 38, 648–658.Google Scholar
Bercovici, E. (2005). Prenatal and perinatal effects of psychotropic drugs on neuro-cognitive development in the fetus. Journal on Developmental Disabilities, 11, 1–20.Google Scholar
Besinger, B. A., Garland, A. F., Litrownik, A. J., & Landsverk, J. A. (1999). Caregiver substance abuse among maltreated children placed in out-come-home care. Child Welfare, 78, 221–239.Google Scholar
Bishai, R., & Koren, G. (1999). Maternal and obstetric effects of prenatal drug exposure. Clinics in Perinatology, 26, 75–86.Google Scholar
Brennan, P. A., Grekin, E. R., Mortensen, E. L., & Mednick, S. A. (2002). Relationship of maternal smoking during pregnancy with criminal arrest and hospitalization for substance abuse in male and female adult offspring. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 48–54.Google Scholar
Brook, J. S., Zheng, L., Whiteman, M., & Brook, D. W. (2001). Aggression in toddlers: Associations with parenting and marital relations. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 162, 228–241.Google Scholar
Brooks, D., & Barth, R. P. (1998). Characteristics and outcomes of drug-exposed and non drug-exposed children in kinship and non-relative foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 6, 475–501.Google Scholar
Buka, S. L., Shenassa, E. D., & Niaura, R. (2003). Elevated risk of tobacco dependence among offspring of mothers who smoked during pregnancy: A 30-year prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1978–1984.Google Scholar
Burns, K., Chethik, L., Burns, W., & Clark, R. (1991). Dyadic disturbances on cocaine-abusing mothers and their infants. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47, 316–319.Google Scholar
Burns, K., Chethik, L., Burns, W., & Clark, R. (1997). The early relationship of drug abusing mothers and their infants: An assessment at eight to twelve months of age. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 279–287.Google Scholar
Carta, J. J., Atwater, J. B., Greenwood, C. R., McConnell, S. R., McEvoy, M. A., & Williams, R. (2001). Effects of cumulative prenatal substance exposure and environmental risks on children's developmental trajectories. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 327–337.Google Scholar
Cash, S. J., & Wilke, D. J. (2003). An ecological model of maternal substance abuse and child neglect: Issues, analyses and recommendations. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73, 392–404.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Henry, B., McGee, R. O., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1995). Temperamental origins of child and adolescent behavior problems: From age three to age fifteen. Child Development, 66, 55–68.Google Scholar
Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., Fleming, C. B., Brewer, D. D., & Gainey, R. R., (2002). Children of substance-abusing parents: Current findings from the focus on families project. In R. J. McMahon (Ed.), The effects of parental dysfunction on children (pp. 179–204). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.
Chassin, L., Flora, D. B., & King, K. M. (2004). Trajectories of alcohol and drug use and dependence from adolescence to adulthood: The effects of familial alcoholism and personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 483–498.Google Scholar
Chilcoat, H. D., Breslau, N., & Anthony, J. C. (1996). Potential barriers to parent monitoring: Social disadvantage, marital status, and maternal psychiatric disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1673–1682.Google Scholar
Chiriboga, C. A. (2003). Fetal alcohol and drug effects. Neurologist, 9, 267–279.Google Scholar
Chronis, A. M., Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Kipp, H. L., Baumann, B. L., & Lee, S. S. (2003). Psychopathology and substance abuse in parents of young children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1424–1432.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 6–20.Google Scholar
Compton, W. M., Cottler, L. B., Ridenour, T., Ben-Abdallah, A., & Spitznagel, E. L. (2002). The specificity of family history of alcohol and drug abuse in cocaine abusers. The American Journal on Addictions, 11, 85–94.Google Scholar
Cone-Wesson, B. (2005). Prenatal alcohol and cocaine exposure: Influences on cognition, speech, language, and hearing. Journal of Communication Disorders, 38, 279–302.Google Scholar
Conners, N. A., Bradley, R. H., Mansell, L. W., Liu, J. Y., Roberts, T. J., & Burgdorf, K., et al. (2004). Children of mothers with serious substance abuse problems: An accumulation of risks. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 30, 85–100.Google Scholar
Cornelius, M. D., Goldschmidt, L., Day, N. L., & Larkby, C. (2002). Alcohol, tobacco and marijuana use among pregnant teenagers: 6-year follow-up of offspring growth effects. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24, 703–710.Google Scholar
Cornelius, M. D., Leech, S. L., Goldschmidt, L., & Day, N. L. (2005). Is prenatal tobacco exposure a risk factor for early adolescent smoking? A follow-up study. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27, 667–676.Google Scholar
Cornelius, M. D., Leech, S. L., Goldschmidt, L., Lebow, N., & Day, N. L. (2000). Prenatal tobacco exposure: Is it a risk factor for preadolescent tobacco use? Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 2, 45–52.Google Scholar
Cornelius, M. D., Ryan, C. M., Day, N. L., Goldschmidt, L., & Willford, J. A. (2001). Prenatal tobacco effects on neuropsychological outcomes among preadolescents. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 22, 217–225.Google Scholar
Costello, E. J., Erkanli, A., Federman, E., & Angold, A. (1999). Development of psychiatric comorbidity with substance abuse in adolescents: Effects of timing and sex. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 298–311.Google Scholar
Covington, C. Y., Nordstrom-Klee, B., Ager, J., Sokol, R., & Delaney-Black, V. (2002). Birth to age 7 growth of children prenatally exposed to drugs: A prospective cohort study. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24, 489–496.Google Scholar
Dahl, R. E. (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 1–22.Google Scholar
Dashe, J. S., Sheffield, J. S., Olscher, D. A., Todd, S. J., Jackson, G. L., & Wendel, G. D. (2002). Relationship between maternal methadone dosage and neonatal withdrawal. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 100, 1244–1249.Google Scholar
Davies, J. K., & Bledsoe, J. M. (2005). Prenatal alcohol and drug exposures in adoption. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 52, 1369–1393.Google Scholar
Delaney-Black, V., Covington, C., Nordstrom Bailey, B., Sood, B. G., Ager, J., Janisse, J., et al. (2004). Prenatal cocaine: Quantity of exposure and gender moderation. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 25, 254–263.Google Scholar
Delaney-Black, V., Covington, C., Templin, T., Ager, J., Nordstrom-Klee, B., Martier, S., et al. (2000). Teacher-assessed behavior of children prenatally exposed to cocaine. Pediatrics, 106, 782–791.Google Scholar
Delaney-Black, V., Covington, C., Templin, T., Kershaw, T., Nordstrom-Klee, B., Ager, J., et al. (2000). Expressive language development of children exposed to cocaine prenatally: Literature review and report of a prospective cohort study. Journal of Communication Disorders, 33, 463–481.Google Scholar
Department of Justice. (2002). Children at risk. Department of Justice Information Bulletin (No. 2002-L0424-001). Washington, DC: Author.
DiFranza, J. R., Aligne, C. A., & Weitzman, M. (2004). Prenatal and postnatal environmental tobacco smoke exposure and children's health. Pediatrics, 113, 1007–1015.Google Scholar
Dube, S. R., Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Edwards, V. J., & Croft, J. B. (2002). Adverse childhood experiences and personal alcohol abuse as an adult. Addictive Behaviors, 27, 713–725.Google Scholar
Dunn, M. G., Mezzich, A., Janiszewski, S., Kirisci, L., & Tarter, R. E. (2001). Transmission of neglect in substance abuse families: The role of child dysregulation and parental SUD. Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, 10, 123–132.Google Scholar
Dunn, M. G., Tarter, R. E., Mezzich, A. C., Vanyukov, M., Kirisci, L., & Kirillova, G. (2002). Origins and consequences of child neglect in substance abuse families. Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 1063–1090.Google Scholar
Ebrahim, S. H., Decoufle, P., & Palakathodi, A. S. (2000). Combined tobacco and alcohol use by pregnant and reproductive-aged women in the United States. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 96, 767–771.Google Scholar
Eiden, R. D. (2001). Maternal substance use and mother–infant feeding interactions. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 497–511.Google Scholar
Eiden, R. D., Stevens, A., Schuetze, P., & Dombkowski, L. E. (2006). A conceptual model for maternal behavior among polydrug cocaine-using mothers: The role of postnatal cocaine use and maternal depression. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20, 1–10.Google Scholar
Elkins, I. J., King, S. M., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2006). Personality traits and the development of nicotine, alcohol, and illicit drug disorders: Prospective links from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 26–39.Google Scholar
Elkins, I. J., McGue, M., Malone, S., & Iacono, W. G. (2004). The effect of parental alcohol and drug disorders on adolescent personality. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 670–676.Google Scholar
Espinosa, M., Beckwith, L., Howard, J., Tyler, R., & Swanson, K. (2001). Maternal psychopathology and attachment in toddlers of heavy cocaine-using mothers. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 316–333.Google Scholar
Eyler, F. D., Behnke, M., Garvan, C. W., Woods, N. S., Wobie, K., & Conlon, M. (2001). Newborn evaluations of toxicity and withdrawal related to prenatal cocaine exposure. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 23, 399–411.Google Scholar
Faden, V. B., & Graubard, B. I. (2000). Maternal substance use during pregnancy and developmental outcome at age three. Journal of Substance Abuse, 12, 329–340.Google Scholar
Fals-Stewart, W., Kelley, M. L., Fincham, M. D., Golden, J., & Logsdon, T. (2004). Emotional and behavioral problems of children living with drug-abusing fathers: Comparisons with children living with alcohol-abusing and non-substance-abusing fathers. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 319–330.Google Scholar
Famularo, R., Kinscherff, R., & Fenton, T. (1992). Psychiatric diagnoses of abusive mothers: A preliminary report. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 658–661.Google Scholar
Famy, C., Streissguth, A. P., & Unis, A. S. (1998). Mental illness in adults with fetal alcohol syndrome or fetal alcohol effects. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 552–554.Google Scholar
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., et al. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14, 245–258.Google Scholar
Ferriero, D. M., & Dempsey, D. A. (1999). Impact of addictive and harmful substances on fetal brain development. Current Opinion in Neurology, 12, 161–166.Google Scholar
Fineman, N., Beckwith, L., Howard, J., & Espinosa, M. (1997). Maternal ego development and mother–infant interaction in drug-abusing women. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 4, 307–317.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, E., Kaltenbach, K., & Finnegan, L. (1990). Patterns of interaction among drug dependent women and their infants. Pediatric Research, 27, 7–15.Google Scholar
Fleming, J. (1998). Childhood sexual abuse: An update. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 10, 383–386.Google Scholar
Frame, L. (2002). Maltreatment reports and placement outcomes for infants and toddlers in out-of-home care. Infant Mental Health Journal, 23, 517–540.Google Scholar
Frank, D. A., Augustyn, M., Knight, W. G., Pell, T., & Zuckerman, B. (2001). Growth, development, and behavior in early childhood following prenatal cocaine exposure: A systematic review. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285, 1613–1625.Google Scholar
Frank, D. A., Jacobs, R. R., Beeghly, M., Augustyn, M., Bellinger, D., Cabral, H., et al. (2002). Level of prenatal cocaine exposure and scores on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development: Modifying effects of caregiver, early intervention, and birth weight. Pediatrics, 110, 1143–1152.Google Scholar
Frank, D. A., Rose-Jacobs, R., Beeghly, M., Wilbur, M., Bellinger, D., & Cabral, H. (2005). Level of prenatal cocaine exposure and 48-month IQ: importance of preschool enrichment. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27, 15–28.Google Scholar
Fried, P. A. (2002a). Conceptual issues in behavioral teratology and their application in determining long-term sequelae of prenatal marihuana exposure. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 43, 81–102.Google Scholar
Fried, P. A. (2002b). Adolescents prenatally exposed to marijuana: Examination of facets of complex behaviors and comparisons with the influence of in utero cigarettes. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 42, 97S–102S.Google Scholar
Fried, P. A., O'Connell, C. M., & Watkinson, B. (1992). 60- and 72-month follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marijuana, cigarettes, and alcohol: Cognitive and language assessment. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 13, 383–391.Google Scholar
Fried, P. A., & Smith, A. M. (2001). A literature review of the consequences of prenatal marihuana exposure. An emerging theme of a deficiency in aspects of executive function. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 23, 1–11.Google Scholar
Fried, P. A., Watkinson, B., & Gray, R. (1992). A follow-up study of attentional behavior in 6-year-old children exposed prenatally to marihuana, cigarettes, and alcohol. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 14, 299–311.Google Scholar
Fried, P. A., Watkinson, B., & Gray, R. (1998). Differential effects on cognitive functioning in 9- to 12-year olds prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marihuana. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 20, 293–306.Google Scholar
Fried, P. A., Watkinson, B., & Gray, R. (2003). Differential effects on cognitive functioning in 13- to 16-year olds prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marihuana. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 25, 427–436.Google Scholar
Fried, P. A., Watkinson, B., & Siegel, L. S. (1997). Reading and language in 9- to 12-year olds prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marijuana. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 19, 171–183.Google Scholar
General Accounting Office. (1994). Foster care: Parental drug abuse has alarming impact on young children (GAO/HEHS-94-89). Washington, DC: Author.
Glantz, M. D. (1992). A developmental psychopathology model of drug abuse vulnerability. In M. D. Glantz & R. W. Pickens (Eds.), Vulnerability to drug abuse (pp. 389–418). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.
Glantz, M. D., & Colliver, J. D. (2002). Drug use, drug abuse, and heterogeneity. Bulletin on Narcotics, United Nations, 54, 45–59.Google Scholar
Glantz, M. D., Conway, K. P., & Colliver, J. D. (2005). Drug abuse heterogeneity and the search for subtypes. In Z. Sloboda (Ed.), Drug abuse epidemiology (pp. 15–27). New York: Springer.
Glantz, M. D., & Leshner, A. I. (2000). Drug abuse and developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 795–814.Google Scholar
Glantz, M. D., Weinberg, N. Z., Miner, L. L., & Colliver, J. D. (1999). The etiology of drug abuse: Mapping the paths. In M. D. Glantz & C. R. Hartell (Eds.), Drug abuse: Origins and interventions (pp. 3–46). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Goldschmidt, L., Day, N. L., & Richardson, G. A. (2000). Effects of prenatal marijuana exposure on child behavior problems at age 10. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 22, 325–336.Google Scholar
Goldschmidt, L., Richardson, G. A., Cornelius, M. D., & Day, N. L. (2004). Prenatal marijuana and alcohol exposure and academic achievement at age 10. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 26, 521–532.Google Scholar
Grant, B. F. (2000). Estimates of US Children exposed to alcohol abuse and dependence in the family. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 112–115.Google Scholar
Gray, K. A., Day, N. L., Leech, S., & Richardson, G. A. (2005). Prenatal marijuana exposure: Effect on child depressive symptoms at ten years of age. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27, 439–448.Google Scholar
Gunzerath, L., Faden, V., Zakhari, S., & Warren, K. (2004). National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism report on moderate drinking. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28, 829–847.Google Scholar
Hans, S. L. (1992). Maternal opioid drug use and child development. In I. Zagon & T. Slotkin (Eds.), Maternal substance abuse and the developing nervous system (pp. 177–213). New York: Academic Press.
Hans, S. L. (2000). Parenting and parent–child relationships in families affected by substance abuse. In H. E. Fitzgerald, B. M. Lester, & R. Zucker (Eds.), Children of addiction (pp. 45–68). New York: Routledge Falmer.
Hans, S. L. (2002). Studies of prenatal exposure to drugs: Focusing on parental care of children. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24, 329–337.Google Scholar
Hans, S. L., Bernstein, V. J., & Henson, L. G. (1999). The role of psychopathology in the parenting of drug-dependent women. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 957–977.Google Scholar
Hans, S. L., & Jeremy, R. J. (2001). Postneonatal mental and motor development of infants exposed in utero to opioid drugs. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 300–315.Google Scholar
Hawkins, D. J., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64–105.Google Scholar
Heffelfinger, A. K., Craft, S., White, D. A., & Shyken, J. (2002). Visual attention in preschool children prenatally exposed to cocaine: Implications for behavioral regulation. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 12–21.Google Scholar
Hicks, B. M., Krueger, R. F., Iacono, W. G., McGue, M., & Patrick, C. J. (2004). Family transmission and heritability of externalizing disorders: A twin-family study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 922–928.Google Scholar
Higgins, S. (2002). Smoking in pregnancy. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 14, 145–151.Google Scholar
Hoffman, J. P., & Cerbone, F. G. (2002). Parental substance use disorder and the risk of adolescent drug abuse: An event history analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependency, 66, 255–264.Google Scholar
Hogan, D. M. (1998). The psychological development and welfare of children of opiate and cocaine users: Review and research needs. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 39, 609–620.Google Scholar
Hogan, D. M. (2003). Parenting beliefs and practices of opiate-addicted parents: Concealment and taboo. European Addiction Research, 9, 113–119.Google Scholar
Huang, L. X., Cerbone, F. G., & Gfroerer, J. C. (2004). Children at risk because of parental substance abuse. Washington, DC: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
Hurd, Y. L., Wang, X., Anderson, V., Beck, O., Minkoff, H., & Dow-Edwards, D. (2005). Marijuana impairs growth in mid-gestation fetuses. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27, 221–229.Google Scholar
Hurt, H., Brodsky, N. L., Roth, H., Malmud, E., & Giannetta, J. M. (2005). School performance of children with gestational cocaine exposure. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27, 203–211.Google Scholar
Hurt, H., Malmud, E., Betancourt, L. M., Brodsky, N. L., & Giannetta, J. M. (2001). A prospective comparison of developmental outcome of children with in utero cocaine exposure and controls using the Battelle Developmental Inventory. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 22, 27–34.Google Scholar
Iacono, W. G., Carlson, S. C., Taylor, J., Elkins, I. J., & McGue, M. (1999). Behavioral disinhibition and the development of substance-use disorders: Findings from the Minnesota Twin Family Study. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 869–900.Google Scholar
Jacobson, J. L., & Jacobson, S. W. (2002). Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on child development. Alcohol Research and Health, 26, 282–286.Google Scholar
Jacobson, S. W., & Jacobson, J. L. (2001). Alcohol and drug-related effects on development: A new emphasis on contextual factors. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 416–430.Google Scholar
Jaudes, P. K., Ekwo, E., & Voorhis, J. V. (1995). Association of drug abuse and child abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19, 1065–1075.Google Scholar
Johnson, A. L., Morrow, C. E., Accornero, V. H., Xue, L., Anthony, J. C., & Bandstra, E. S. (2002). Maternal cocaine use: Estimated effects on mother–child play interactions in the preschool period. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, 191–202.Google Scholar
Jones, H. E., Johnson, R. E., Jasinski, D. R., O'Grady, K. E., Chisholm, C. A., Choo, R. E., et al. (2005). Buprenorphine versus methadone in the treatment of pregnant opioid-dependent patients: Effects on the neonatal abstinence syndrome. Drug Alcohol Dependence, 79, 1–10.Google Scholar
Kandel, D. B., Wu, P., & Davies, M. (1994). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and smoking by adolescent daughters. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 1407–1413.Google Scholar
Kaplow, J. B., Curran, P. J., Dodge, K. A., & The Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2002). Child, parent, and peer predictors of early-onset substance use: A multisite longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 199–216.Google Scholar
Kearney, M. H., Murphy, S., & Rosenbaum, M. (1994). Mothering on crack: A grounded theory analysis. Social Science and Medicine, 38, 351–361.Google Scholar
Keller, T. E., Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., & Fleming, C. B. (2002). Parent figure transitions and delinquency and drug use among early adolescent children of substance abusers. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 28, 399–427.Google Scholar
Kelley, S. J. (1998). Stress and coping behaviors of substance-abusing mothers. Journal of the Society for Pediatric Nurses, 3, 103–110.Google Scholar
Kelley, S. J. (2003). Cumulative environmental risk in substance abusing women: Early intervention, parenting stress, child abuse potential and child development. Child Abuse and Neglect, 27, 993–995.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Davis, C. G., & Kessler, R. C. (1997). The familial aggregation of common psychiatric and substance use disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey: A family history study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 541–548.Google Scholar
Kettinger, L. A., Nair, P., & Schuler, M. E. (2000). Exposure to environmental risk factors and parenting attitudes among substance-abusing women. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 26, 1–11.Google Scholar
Kirisci, L., Vanyukov, M., & Tarter, R. (2005). Detection of youth at high risk for substance use disorder: A longitudinal study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 19, 243–252.Google Scholar
Koob, G. F. (2003). Neurobiology of drug addiction. In D. B. Kandel (Ed.), Stages and pathways of drug involvement: Examining the gateway hypothesis (pp. 337–364). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Koob, G. F., & Le Moal, M. (2001). Drug addiction, dysregulation of reward, and allostasis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 24, 97–129.Google Scholar
LaGasse, L., Messinger, D., Lester, B. M., Seifer, R., Tronick, E. Z., Bauer, C. R., et al. (2003). Prenatal drug exposure and maternal and infant feeding behavior. Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition, 88, 391–399.Google Scholar
Langbehn, D. R., Cadoret, R. J., Caspers, K., Troughton, E. P., & Yucuis, R. (2003). Genetic and environmental risk factors for the onset of drug use and problems in adoptees. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 69, 151–167.Google Scholar
Law, K. L., Stroud, L. R., LaGasse, L. L., Niaura, R., Liu, J., & Lester, B. M. (2003). Smoking during pregnancy and newborn neurobehavior. Pediatrics, 111, 1318–1323.Google Scholar
Leech, S. L., Richardson, G. A., Goldschmidt, L., & Day, N. L. (1999). Prenatal substance exposure: Effects on attention and impulsivity of 6-year olds. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 21, 109–118.Google Scholar
Lester, B. M., Andreozzi, L., & Appiah, L. (2004). Substance use during pregnancy: Time for policy to catch up with research. Harm Reduction Journal, 1, 5.Google Scholar
Lester, B., Boukydis, C. F. Z., & Twomey, J. E. (2000). Maternal substance abuse and child outcome. In C. H. Zeanah, Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health (pp. 161–175). New York: Guilford Press.
Lester, B. M., Lagasse, L., & Brunner, S. (1997). Data base of studies on prenatal cocaine exposure and child outcome. Journal of Drug Issues, 27, 487–499.Google Scholar
Lester, B. M., Lagasse, L., Seifer, R., Tronick, E. Z., Bauer, C. R., Shankaran, S., et al. (2003). The Maternal Lifestyle Study (MLS): Effects of prenatal cocaine and/or opiate exposure on auditory brain response at one month. Journal of Pediatrics, 142, 279–285.Google Scholar
Lester, B. M., Liu, E., LaGasse, L., Seifer, R., Bauer, C., Shankaran, S., et al. (2005). Neurobiological dysregulation model of prenatal cocaine exposure and behavior problems at age 7. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Pediatric Research, Washington, DC.
Lester, B. M., & Tronick, E. Z. (2004). The Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS). Pediatrics, 113(Suppl.), 631–699.Google Scholar
Lester, B. M., Tronick, E. Z., LaGasse, L., Seifer, R., Bauer, C. R., Shankaran, S., et al. (2002). The maternal lifestyle study: Effects of substance exposure during pregnancy on neurodevelopmental outcome in 1-month-old. Pediatrics, 110, 1182–1192.Google Scholar
Leventhal, J. M., Forsyth, B. W. C., Qi, K., Johnson, L., Shroeder, D., & Votto, N. (1997). Maltreatment of children born to women who used cocaine during pregnancy: A population-based study. Pediatrics, 100, 1–6.Google Scholar
Lewis, B. A., Singer, L. T., Short, E. J., Minnes, S., Arendt, R., Weishampel, P., et al. (2004). Four-year language outcomes of children exposed to cocaine in utero. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 26, 617–627.Google Scholar
Lewis, D. C., Alvarez, L., Anglin, M. D., Arendt, R. E., Balsten, R. L., Beeghly, M., et al. (2005). Meth science not stigma: Open letter to the media. Join Together Online, July 25. Retrieved from http://www.jointogether.org/news/yourturn/commentary/2005/meth-science-not-stigma-open.htmlGoogle Scholar
Lewis, M. W., Misra, S., Johnson, H. L., & Rosen, T. S. (2004). Neurological and developmental outcomes of prenatally cocaine-exposed offspring from 12 to 36 months. American Journal of Drug Alcohol Abuse, 30, 299–320.Google Scholar
Lidow, M. S. (2003). Consequences of prenatal cocaine exposure in nonhuman primates. Developmental Brain Research, 147, 23–36.Google Scholar
Linares, T. J., Singer, L. T., Kirchner, H. L., Short, E. J., Min, M. O., Hussey, P., et al. (2006). Mental health outcomes of cocaine-exposed children at 6 years of age. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31, 85–97.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., & Cushing, G. (1999). Neighborhood influences and child development: A prospective study of substance abusers' offspring. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 763–784.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., Cushing, G., Merikangas, K. R., & Rounsaville, B. J. (1998). Multiple jeopardy: Risk and protective factors among addicted mothers' offspring. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 117–136.Google Scholar
Malanga, C. J., & Kosofsky, B. E. (2003). Does drug abuse beget drug abuse? Behavioral analysis of addiction liability in animal models of prenatal drug exposure. Developmental Brain Research, 147, 47–57.Google Scholar
Maughan, B., Taylor, A., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2004). Prenatal smoking and early childhood conduct problems. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 836–843.Google Scholar
Mayes, L. C. (1995). Substance abuse and parenting. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 4. Applied and practical parenting (pp. 101–126). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Mayes, L. C. (1999). Developing brain and in utero cocaine exposure: Effects on neural ontogeny. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 685–714.Google Scholar
Mayes, L. C. (2002). A behavioral teratogenic model of the impact of prenatal cocaine exposure on arousal regulatory systems. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24, 385–395.Google Scholar
Mayes, L. C., Cicchetti, D., Acharyya, S., & Zhang, H. (2003). Developmental trajectories of cocaine-and-other-drug-exposed and non-cocaine-exposed children. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 24, 323–335.Google Scholar
Mayes, L. C., & Fahy, T. (2001). Prenatal drug exposure and cognitive development. In R. J. Sternberg & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), Environmental effects on cognitive abilities (pp. 189–219). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Mayes, L. C., & Truman, S. D. (2002). Substance abuse and parenting. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 4. Social conditions and applied parenting (2nd ed., pp. 329–359). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
McMahon, T. J., Winkel, J. D., Suchman, N. E., & Luthar, S. S. (2002). Drug dependence, parenting responsibilities, and treatment history: Why doesn't mom go for help? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 65, 105–114.Google Scholar
Melchert, T. P. (2000). Clarifying the effects of parental substance abuse, child sexual abuse, and parental caregiving on adult adjustment. Professional Psychology—Research and Practice, 31, 64–69.Google Scholar
Merikangas, K. R., (2002). Genetic epidemiology of substance-use disorders. In H. D'Haeren, J. A. den Boer, & P. Willner (Eds.), Biological psychiatry (pp. 537–546). New York: Wiley.
Merikangas, K. R., Stolar, M., Stevens, D. E., Goulet, J., Preisig, M., Fenton, B., et al. (1998). Familial transmission of substance use disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 973–979.Google Scholar
Messinger, D. S., Bauer, C. R., Das, A., Seifer, R., Lester, B. M., LaGasse, L. L., et al. (2004). The maternal lifestyle study: Cognitive, motor, and behavioral outcomes of cocaine-exposed and opiate-exposed infants through three years of age. Pediatrics, 113, 1677–1685.Google Scholar
Mick, E., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Sayer, J., & Kleinman, S. (2002). Case–control study of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and maternal smoking, alcohol use, and drug use during pregnancy. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 378–385.Google Scholar
Miller, B. A., Downs, W. R., & Gondoli, D. M. (1989). Spousal violence among alcoholic women as compared to a random household sample of women. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 50, 533–540.Google Scholar
Miller, B. A., Smyth, N. J., & Mudar, P. J. (1999). Mothers' alcohol and other drug problems and their punitiveness with their children. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 60, 632–642.Google Scholar
Miller-Loncar, C., Lester, B. M., Seifer, R.. Lagasse, L. L., Bauer, C. R., Shankaran, S., et al. (2005). Predictors of motor development in children prenatally exposed to cocaine. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27, 213–220.Google Scholar
Minnes, S., Singer, L. T., Arendt, R. E., & Satayathum, S. (2005). Effects of prenatal cocaine/polydrug use on maternal–infant feeding interactions during the first year of life. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 26, 194–200.Google Scholar
Moe, V., & Slinning, K. (2001). Children prenatally exposed to substances: Gender-related differences in outcome form infancy to 3 years of age. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 334–350.Google Scholar
Molitor, A., Mayes, L. C., & Ward, A. (2003). Emotion regulation behavior during a separation procedure in 18-month-old children of mothers using cocaine and other drugs. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 39–54.Google Scholar
Morrow, C. E., Bandstra, E. S., Anthony, J. C., Ofir, A. Y., Xue, L., & Reyes, M. L. (2001). Influence of prenatal cocaine exposure on full-term infant neurobehavioral functioning. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 23, 533–544.Google Scholar
Morrow, C. E., Vogel, A. L., Anthony, J. C., Ofir, A. Y., Dausa, A. T., & Bandstra, E. S. (2004). Expressive and receptive language functioning in preschool children with prenatal cocaine exposure. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 29, 543–554.Google Scholar
Moss, H. B., Lynch, K. G., Hardie, T. L., & Baron, D. A. (2002). Family functioning and peer affiliation in children of fathers with antisocial personality disorder and substance dependence: Associations with problem behaviors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 607–614.Google Scholar
Mullins, S. M., Bard, D. E., & Ondersma, S. J. (2005). Comprehensive services for mothers of drug-exposed infants: Relations between program participation and subsequent child protective services reports. Child Maltreatment, 10, 72–81.Google Scholar
Mun, E. Y., Fitzgerald, H. E., Von Eye, A., Puttler, L. I., & Zucker, R. A. (2001). Temperamental characteristics as predictors of externalizing and internalizing child behavior problems in the contexts of high and low parental psychopathology. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 393–415.Google Scholar
Murphy, J., Jellinek, M., Quinn, D., Smith, G., Poitrast, F., & Goshko, M. (1991). Substance abuse and serious child mistreatment: Prevalence, risk, and outcome in a court sample. Child Abuse and Neglect, 15, 197–211.Google Scholar
Nair, P., Black, M. M., Schuler, M., Keane, V., Snow, L., Rigney, B.A., et al. (1997). Risk factors for disruption in primary caregiving among infants of substance abusing women. Child Abuse and Neglect, 21, 1039–1051.Google Scholar
Nair, P., Schuler, M. E., Black, M. M., Kettinger, L., & Harrington, D. (2003). Cumulative environmental risk in substance abusing women: Early intervention, parenting stress, child abuse potential. Child Abuse and Neglect, 27, 997–1017.Google Scholar
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (2000). Fetal alcohol exposure and the brain. Alcohol Alert 50.
Nigg, J. T., Glass, J. M., Wong, M. M., Poon, E., Jester, J. M., Fitzgerald, H. E., et al. (2004). Neuropsychological executive functioning in children at elevated risk for alcoholism: Findings in early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 302–314.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T., Wong, M. M., Poon, E., Martel, M. M., Jester, J. M., Puttler, L. I., et al. (2006). Poor response inhibition as a predictor of problem drinking and illicit drug use in adolescents at risk for alcoholism and other substance use disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 468–475.Google Scholar
Nordstrom Bailey, B., Sood, B. G., Sokol, R. J., Ager, J., Janisse, J., Hannigan, J. H., et al. (2005). Gender and alcohol moderate prenatal cocaine effects on teacher-report of child behavior. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27, 181–189.Google Scholar
Nordstrom-Klee, B., Delaney-Black, V., Covington, C., Ager, J., & Sokol, R. (2002). Growth from birth onwards of children prenatally exposed to drugs: A literature review. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24, 481–488.Google Scholar
Nuñes, E. V., Weissman, M. M., Goldstein, R., McAvay, G., Beckford, C, Seacini, A., et al. (2000). Psychiatric disorders and impairment in the children of opiate addicts: Prevalence and distribution by ethnicity. American Journal on Addictions, 9, 232–241.Google Scholar
Office of Applied Studies. (2002). Results from the 2001 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Vol. I. Summary of national findings (DHHS SMA 02-3758, NHSDA Series H-17). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
Office of Applied Studies. (2004, February 13). The NSDUH Report: Alcohol dependence or abuse among parents with children living in the home. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
Office of Applied Studies. (2005a, February 18). The NSDUH Report: Substance use and need for treatment among youths who have been in foster care. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
Office of Applied Studies. (2005b, May 13). The NSDUH Report: Mother's serious mental illness and substance use among youths. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
Office of Applied Studies. (2005c, June 2). The NSDUH Report: Substance use during pregnancy: 2002 and 2003 update. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
Olds, D. L. (2002). Prenatal and infancy home visiting by nurses: From randomized trials to community replication. Prevention Science, 3, 153–172.Google Scholar
Olson, H. C., O'Connor, M. J., & Fitzgerald, H. E. (2001). Lessons learned from study of the developmental impact of parental alcohol use. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 271–290.Google Scholar
Ondersma, S. J. (2002). Predictors of neglect within low-SES families: The importance of substance abuse. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72, 383–391.Google Scholar
Ondersma, S. J., Simpson, S. M., Brestan, E. V., & Ward, M. (2000). Prenatal drug exposure and social policy: The search for an appropriate response. Child Maltreatment, 5, 93–108.Google Scholar
Peterson, L. M., Burns, W. J., & Widmayer, S. M. (1995). Developmental risk for infants of cocaine abusers: Evaluation and critique. Clinical Psychology Review, 15, 739–776.Google Scholar
Porath, A. J., & Fried, P. A. (2005). Effects of prenatal cigarette and marijuana exposure on drug use among offspring. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27, 267–277.Google Scholar
Pilowsky, D. J., Lyles, C. M., Cross, S. I., Celentano, D., Nelson K. E., &Vlahov, D. (2001). Characteristics of injection drug using parents who retain their children, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 61, 113–122.Google Scholar
Prescott, C. A., Maes, H. H., & Kendler, K. S. (2005). Genetics of substance use disorders. In K. S. Kendle & L. J. Eaves (Eds.), Psychiatric genetics (pp. 167–196). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Pulsifer, M. B., Radonovich, K., Belcher, H. M. E., & Butz, A. M. (2004). Intelligence and school readiness in preschool children with prenatal drug exposure. Child Neuropsychology, 10, 89–101.Google Scholar
Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 330–336.Google Scholar
Richardson, G. A., Ryan, C., Willford, J., Day, N. L., & Goldschmidt, L. (2002). Prenatal alcohol and marijuana exposure: Effects on neuropsychological outcomes at 10 years. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24, 309–320.Google Scholar
Richter, K. P., & Bammer, G. (2000). A hierarchy of strategies heroin-using mothers employ to reduce harm to their children. Journal of Substance Abuse and Treatment, 19, 403–413.Google Scholar
Rodning, C., Beckwith, L., & Howard, J. (1991). Quality of attachment and home environments in children prenatally exposed to PCP and cocaine. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 351–366.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, A. A., Pilowsky, D. J., Fine, P., Thorpe, M., Fein, E., Simms, M. D., et al. (1997). Foster care: An update. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 448–457.Google Scholar
Sakai, J. T., Stallings, M. C., Mikulick-Gilbertson, S. K., Corley, R. P., Young, S. E., Hopfer, C. J., et al. (2004). Mate similarity for substance dependence and antisocial personality disorder symptoms among parents of patients and controls. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 75, 165–175.Google Scholar
Savage, J., Brodsky, N. L., Malmud, E., Giannetta, J. M., & Hurt, H. (2005). Attentional functioning and impulse control in cocaine-exposed and control children at age ten years. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 26, 42–47.Google Scholar
Schroder, M. D., Snyder, P. J., Sielski, I., & Mayes, L. (2004). Impaired performance of children exposed in utero to cocaine on a novel test of visuospatial working memory. Brain and Cognition, 55, 409–412.Google Scholar
Schuetze, P., & Eiden, R. D. (2006). The association between maternal cocaine use during pregnancy and physiological regulation in 4- to 8-week old infants: An examination of possible mediators and moderators. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31, 15–26.Google Scholar
Schuler, M. E., Nair, P., & Black, M. M. (2002). Ongoing maternal drug use, parenting attitudes, and a home intervention: Effects on mother–child interaction at 18 months. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, 87–94.Google Scholar
Scott, P., Fleming, M., Bennett, K., & Graves, C. (2005). Methamphetamine use during pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 193(Suppl. 1), S87.Google Scholar
Seidman, L. J., Buka, S. L., Goldstein, J. M., Horton, N. J., Rieder, R. O., & Tsuang, M. T. (2000). The relationship of prenatal and perinatal complications to cognitive functioning at age 7 in the New England Cohorts of the National Collaborative Perinatal Project. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26, 309–321.Google Scholar
Seifer, R., LaGasse, L. L., Lester, B., Bauer, C. R., Shankaran, S., Bada, H. S., et al. (2004). Attachment status in children prenatally exposed to cocaine and other substances. Child Development, 75, 850–868.Google Scholar
Shankaran, S., Das, A., Bauer, C. R., Bada, H. S. Lester, B., Wright, L. L., et al. (2004). Association between patterns of maternal substance use and infant birth weight, length, and head circumference. Pediatrics, 114, e226–e234.Google Scholar
Singer, L. T., Arendt, R., Farkas, K., Minnes, S., Huang, J., & Yamashita, T. (1997). Relationship of prenatal cocaine exposure and maternal postpartum psychological distress to child developmental outcome. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 473–489.Google Scholar
Singer, L. T., Arendt, R., Minnes, S., Farkas, K., & Salvator, A. (2002). Cognitive and motor outcomes of cocaine-exposed infants. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287, 1952–1960.Google Scholar
Singer, L. T., Arendt, R. E., Minnes, S., Salvator, A., Siegel, C., & Lewis, B.A. (2001). Developing language skills of cocaine-exposed infants. Pediatrics, 107, 1057–1064.Google Scholar
Singer, L. T., Hawkins, S., Huang, J., Davillier, M., & Bailey, J. (2001). Developmental outcomes and environmental correlates of very low birthweight, cocaine-exposed infants. Early Human Development, 64, 91–103.Google Scholar
Singer, L. T., Minnes, S., Linares, T., Short, E., Satayathum, S., & Kirchner, H. L. (2005). Self-reported mental health symptoms of 9-year old prenatally cocaine-exposed children. Paper presented at the Neurobehavioral Teratology Society Meeting, St. Pete Beach, FL.
Singer, L. T., Minnes, S., Short, E., Arendt, R., Farkas, K., Lewis, B. A., et al. (2004). Cognitive outcomes of preschool children with prenatal cocaine exposure. Journal of the American Medical Association, 291, 2448–2456.Google Scholar
Smith, A. M., Fried, P. A., Hogan, M. J., & Cameron, I. (2004). Effects of prenatal marijuana on response inhibition: An fMRI study of young adults. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 26, 533–542.Google Scholar
Smith, L. M., Lagasse, L. L., Derauf, C., Grant, P., Shah, R., Arria, A., et al. (2004). Intrauterine growth of infants exposed to prenatal methamphetamine: Preliminary results from the Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle (IDEAL) Study. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Pediatric Research, San Francisco, CA.
Sood, B. G., Nordstrom Bailey, B., Covington, C., Sokol, R. J., Ager, J., Janisse, J., et al. (2005). Gender and alcohol moderate caregiver reported child behavior after prenatal cocaine. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 27, 191–201.Google Scholar
Stanwood, G. D., & Levitt, P. (2004). Drug exposure early I life: Functional repercussions of changing neuropharmacology during sensitive periods of brain development. Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 4, 65–71.Google Scholar
Stein, J. A., Leslie, M. B., & Nyamathi, A. (2002). Relative contributions of parent substance use and childhood maltreatment to chronic homelessness, depression, and substance abuse problems among homeless women: Mediating roles of self-esteem and abuse in adulthood. Child Abuse and Neglect, 26, 1011–1027.Google Scholar
Stratton, K., Howe, C., & Battaglia, F. (Eds.). (1996). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Diagnosis, epidemiology, prevention, and treatment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Streissguth, A. P., Bookstein, F. L., Barr, H. M., Sampson, P. D., O'Malley, K., & Young, J. K. (2004). Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 25, 228–238.Google Scholar
Tarter, R. E., Blackson, T. C., Martin, C. S., Loeber, R., & Moss, H. (1993). Characteristics and correlates of child discipline practices in substance abuse and normal families. American Journal on Addictions, 2, 18–25.Google Scholar
Tarter, R. E., Kirisci, L., Habeych, M., Reynolds, M., & Vanyukov, M. (2004). Neurobehavior disinhibition in childhood predisposes boys to substance use disorder by young adulthood: Direct and mediated etiologic pathways. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 73, 121–132.Google Scholar
Testa, M., Quigley, B. M., & Eiden, R. D. (2003). The effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on infant mental development: A meta-analytical review. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 38, 295–304.Google Scholar
Tronick, E. Z., & Beeghly, M. (1999). Prenatal cocaine exposure, child development, and the compromising effects of cumulative risk. Clinics in Perinatology, 26, 151–171.Google Scholar
Tronick, E. Z., Messinger, D. S., Weinberg, M. K., Lester, B. M., LaGasse, L., Seifer, R., et al. (2005). Cocaine exposure is associated with subtle compromises of infants' and mothers' social–emotional behavior and dyadic features of their interaction in the Face-to-Face Still-Face Paradigm. Developmental Psychology, 41, 711–722.Google Scholar
United States General Accounting Office. (1994). Foster care: Parental drug abuse has alarming impact on young children (GAO/HEHS-94-89). Washington, DC: Author.
Wakschlag, L. S., Pickett, K. E., Cook, E., Jr., Benowitz, N. L., & Leventhal, B. L. (2002). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and severe antisocial behavior in offspring: A review. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 966–974.Google Scholar
Wakschlag, L. S., Pickett, K. E., Kasza, K., & Loeber, R. (2006). Is prenatal smoking associated with a developmental pattern of conduct problems in young boys? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 461–467.Google Scholar
Wakschlag, L. S., & Hans, S. L. (2002). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and conduct problems in high-risk youth: A developmental framework. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 351–369.Google Scholar
Wasserman, D. R., & Leventhal, J. M. (1993). Maltreatment of children born to cocaine-abusing mothers. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 147, 1324–1328.Google Scholar
Weinberg, N. Z. (1997). Cognitive and behavioral deficits associated with parental alcohol use. Journal of the American Acadey of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1177–1186.Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Warner, V., Wickramaratne, P. J., & Kandel, D. B. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and psychopathology in offspring followed to adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 892–899.Google Scholar
White, S. M. (2001). The effect of controlled drugs on the unborn child and fetus. Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine, 8, 129–139.Google Scholar
Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., Bredin, E., Hahesy, A. L., Abrantes, A., Neft, D., et al. (2002). A family study of the high-risk children of opioid- and alcohol-dependent parents. American Journal on Addictions, 11, 41–51.Google Scholar
Williams, G. M., O'Callaghan, M., Najman, J. M., Bor, W., Andersen, M. J., Richards, D., et al. (1998). Maternal cigarette smoking and child psychiatric morbidity: A longitudinal study. Pediatrics, 102, e11.Google Scholar
Wills, T. A., Sandy, J. M., & Yaeger, A. (2000). Temperament and early onset of substance use: An epigenetic approach to risk and protection. Journal of Personality, 68, 1127–1152.Google Scholar
Windham, G. C., Hopkins, B., Fenster, L., & Swan, S. H. (2000). Prenatal active or passive tobacco smoke exposure and the risk of preterm delivery or low birth weight. Epidemiology, 11, 427–433.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. J., Nuñes, E. V., Greenwald, S., & Weissman, M. (2004). Verbal deficits and disruptive behavior disorders among children of opiate-dependent parents. The American Journal on Addictions, 13, 202–214.Google Scholar
Yates, W. R., Cadoret, R. J., Troughton, M. S., & Giunta, T. S. (1998). Effect of fetal alcohol exposure on adult symptoms of nicotine, alcohol, and drug dependence. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22, 914–920.Google Scholar
Zlotnick, C., Robertson, M. J., & Wright, M. A. (1999). The impact of childhood foster care and other out-of-home placement on homeless women and their children. Child Abuse and Neglect, 23, 1057–1068.Google Scholar
Zlotnick, C., Tam, T. W., & Robertson, M. (2003). Substance use and separation of homeless mothers from their children. Addictive Behaviors, 28, 1373–1383.Google Scholar