Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T18:07:51.915Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Physical and psychosocial development of Mapuche and nonindigenous Chilean toddlers: A modest role of ethnicity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 November 2018

Marcelo A. Navarrete ,
Jaime R. Silva ,
Marinus H. Van Ijzendoorn  and
Rodrigo A. Cárcamo
Marcelo A. Navarrete
Affiliation:
University of Magallanes, Chile
Jaime R. Silva
Affiliation:
Universidad del Desarrollo, Chile Clínica Alemana de Santiago, Chile
Marinus H. Van Ijzendoorn
Affiliation:
Capital Normal University, Beijing, China Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Rodrigo A. Cárcamo*
Affiliation:
University of Magallanes, Chile
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Rodrigo A. Cárcamo. Department of Psychology, University of Magallanes. Av. Bulnes 01855, Punta Arenas, P.O. Box 113-D, Chile; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Mapuche represents the largest indigenous group in Chile amounting to nearly 10% of the total population. In a longitudinal cohort of 12,398 children, we analyzed the role of ethnicity in physical and psychosocial development of Mapuche and nonindigenous Chilean toddlers (age 2.5 years), taking into account sociodemographic and caregiver characteristics. As indicated by our univariate analysis, the Mapuche developmental niche was characterized by lower income, lower maternal education, poorer quality of the home environment, longer breastfeeding, and higher parental stress. Physical development showed higher body mass index. Mapuche children showed less externalizing problems. We then analyzed the incremental contribution of ethnicity in a series of hierarchical regressions with the second wave of developmental measurements (age 4.5 years) as outcome variables, showing a significant but modest incremental contribution of ethnicity to the prediction of children's development between 2.5 and 4.5 years of age. Controlling for environmental variables, Mapuche showed less externalizing and internalizing, behavior problems. Socioeconomic status, quality of the home environment, and parenting stress were stronger predictors of socioemotional development than ethnicity per se.

Keywords

behavior problemschild developmentChileethnicityphysical growth
Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 30 , Special Issue 5: Cultural Development and Psychopathology , December 2018 , pp. 1959 - 1976
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

We would like to thank the research team of the Encuesta Longitudinal de la Primera Infancia [Longitudinal Survey of Early Childhood]. Support was provided by the Fund for Innovation and Competitiveness (FIC) of the Chilean Ministry of Economy, Development and Tourism, through the Millennium Scientific Initiative Grant IS130005 and the National Fund for Scientific and Technological Development (FONDECYT) Grant 1171836 (to J.S.) and Grant 11140663 (to R.C.). Support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO-Spinoza Prize; to M.H.v.IJ.) is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index: Test manual (3rd ed.). Charlottesville, VA: Pediatric Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M. (1966). The classification of children's psychiatric symptoms: A factor-analytic study. Psychological Monographs, 80, 1–37. doi:10.1037/h0093906Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for ASEBA Preschool Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.Google Scholar
Agostini, C., Brown, P. & Román, A. (2010). Estimando indigencia y pobreza indígena a nivel regional con datos censales y encuestas de hogares. Cuadernos de Economía, 47, 125–150.Google Scholar
Alarcón, A. M., & Nahuelcheo, Y. S. (2008). Creencias sobre el embarazo, parto y puerperio en la mujer mapuche: Conversaciones privadas. Chungará, 40, 193–202. doi:10.4067/s0717-73562008000200007Google Scholar
Alarcón-Muñoz, A. M., & Vidal-Herrera, A. C. (2005). Dimensiones culturales en el proceso de atención primaria infantil: perspectivas de las madres. Salud Pública de México, 47, 440–446. Retrieved from http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0036-36342005000600008&lng=es&tlng=ptGoogle Scholar
Amigo, H., Bustos, P., & Kaufman, J. S. (2010). Absence of disparities in anthropometric measures among Chilean indigenous and non-indigenous newborns. BMC Public Health, 10, 392. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-392Google Scholar
Anselmi, L., Barros, F. C., Teodoro, M. L., Piccinini, C. A., Menezes, A. M. B., Araujo, C. L., & Rohde, L. A. (2008). Continuity of behavioral and emotional problems from pre-school years to pre-adolescence in a developing country. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 499–507. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01865.xGoogle Scholar
Ball, R., Shu, C., Xi, P., Rioux, M., Luximon, Y., & Molenbroek, J. (2010). A comparison between Chinese and Caucasian head shapes. Applied Ergonomics, 41, 832–839. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2010.02.002Google Scholar
Barber, B. K., Olsen, J. E., & Shagle, S. C. (1994). Associations between parental psychological and behavioral control and youth internalized and externalized behaviors. Child Development, 65, 1120–1136. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00807.xGoogle Scholar
Becerra, S., Merino, M. E., Webb, A., & Larrañaga, D. (2017). Recreated practices by Mapuche women that strengthen place identity in new urban spaces of residence in Santiago, Chile. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 1, 1–19. doi:10.1080/01419870.2017.1287416Google Scholar
Behrman, J., Palma, I., & Puentes, E. (2017). Wealth disparities for early childhood anthropometrics and skills: Evidence from Chilean longitudinal data. SSRN Electronic Journal. Advance online publication. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3044485Google Scholar
Berger, L. M., Paxson, C., & Waldfogel, J. (2009). Income and child development. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 978–989. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.04.013Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H. (1995). Form and function: Implications for studies of culture and human development. Culture & Psychology, 1, 123–137. doi:10.1177/1354067x9511009Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Tal, J., Ludemann, P., Toda, S., Rahn, C. W., … Vardi, D. (1992). Maternal responsiveness to infants in three societies: The United States, France, and Japan. Child Development, 63, 808–821.Google Scholar
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2005). Caring for children around the world: A view from HOME. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 468–478. doi:10.1080/01650250500146925Google Scholar
Bradley, R. H., Corwyn, R. F., McAdoo, H. P., & Coll, C. G. (2001). The home environments of children in the United States: Part I. Variations by age, ethnicity, and poverty status. Child Development, 72, 1844–1867.Google Scholar
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., & Carter, A. S. (2008). Social-emotional screening status in early childhood predicts elementary school outcomes. Pediatrics, 121, 957–962. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1948Google Scholar
Bruneau-Chávez, J., España-Romero, V., Lang-Tapia, M., & Chillón, G. P. (2015). Diferencias en la composición corporal y somatotipo de escolares de etnia Mapuche y no Mapuche de la comuna de Temuco-Chile. International Journal of Morphology, 33, 988–995. doi:10.4067/S0717-95022015000300029Google Scholar
Bustos, P., Muñoz, S., Vargas, C., & Amigo, H. (2009). Evolution of the nutritional situation of indigenous and non-indigenous Chilean schoolchildren. Annals of Human Biology, 36, 298–307. doi:10.1080/03014460902729536Google Scholar
Caldwell, B. M., & Bradley, R. H. (2003). Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment: Administration manual. Little Rock, AR: University of Arkansas Press.Google Scholar
Caniguan, M. (2012). Infancia mapuche y migración en el Budi. Revista iberoamericana sobre niñez y Juventud en Lucha por sus Derechos, 4, 135–141.Google Scholar
Caqueo-Uríar, A., Urzúa, A., Ferrer, R., Zúñiga, F., Palma, C., & Escudero, J. (2014). Strengths and difficulties in emotional adjustment of Aymara children from the perspective of children, parents and teachers. Revista Chilena de Pediatría, 85, 561–568. doi:10.4067/S0370-41062014000500006Google Scholar
Cárcamo, R. A., van der Veer, R., Vermeer, H. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2014). From foundling homes to day care: A historical review of childcare in Chile. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 30, 461–472. doi:10.1590/0102-311X00060613Google Scholar
Cárcamo, R. A., Vermeer, H. J., van der Veer, R., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2015). Childcare in Mapuche and non-Mapuche families in Chile: The importance of socio-economic inequality. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 2668–2679. doi:10.1007/s10826-014-0069-3Google Scholar
Carruthers, D., & Rodriguez, P. (2009). Mapuche protest, environmental conflict, and social movement linkage in Chile. Third World Quarterly, 30, 743–760. doi:10.1080/01436590902867193Google Scholar
CASEN. (2015). Encuesta de caracterización socioeconómica nacional [Survey of National Socioeconomic Characterization]—Ministery of Social Development. Santiago, Chile. Retrieved from http://observatorio.ministeriodesarrollosocial.gob.cl/casen-multidimensional/casen/basedatos.phpGoogle Scholar
Casullo, M. (2000). Big Five Inventory. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Universidad de Buenos Aires.Google Scholar
Causadias, J. M. (2013). A roadmap for the integration of culture into developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4, Pt. 2), 1375–1398. doi:10.1017/s0954579413000679Google Scholar
Cohen, A. B. (2009). Many forms of culture. American Psychologist, 64, 194–204. doi:10.1037/a0015308Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Colder, C. R., Frndak, S. E., Lengua, L. J., Read, J. P., Hawk, L. W., & Wieczorek, W. F. (2018). Internalizing and externalizing problem behavior: A test of a latent variable interaction predicting trajectories of onset and escalation of adolescent drug use. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 46, 319–330. doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0277-6Google Scholar
Conger, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2007). An interactionist perspective on the socioeconomic context of human development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 175–199. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085551Google Scholar
Costello, E. J., Compton, S. N., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Relationships between poverty and psychopathology: A natural experiment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, 2023–2029. doi:10.1001/jama.290.15.2023Google Scholar
de Onis, M., Garza, C., Victora, C. G., Onyango, A. W., Frongillo, E. A., & Martines, J. (2004). The WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study: Planning, study design, and methodology. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 25(1, Suppl.), S15–S26. doi:10.1177/15648265040251s103Google Scholar
de Onis, M., Onyango, A., Borghi, E., Siyam, A., Blossner, M., Lutter, C., & WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group. (2012). Worldwide implementation of the WHO Child Growth Standards. Public Health Nutrition, 15, 1603–1610. doi:10.1017/S136898001200105XGoogle Scholar
Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Lansford, J. E., Miller, S., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2009). A dynamic cascade model of the development of substance-use onset. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 74, 1–120. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2009.00528.xGoogle Scholar
Dunbar, E., Saiz, J. L., Stela, K., & Saez, R. (2000). Personality and social group value determinants of out-group bias: A cross-national comparison of Gough's Pr/To Scale. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31, 267–275. doi:10.1177/0022022100031002009Google Scholar
Eid, M., & Diener, E. (2001). Norms for experiencing emotions in different cultures: Inter- and intranational differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, doi:10.1037//0022-3514.81.5.869Google Scholar
Erazo, B. M., Amigo, C. H., & Bustos, M. P. (2005). Etnia Mapuche y condiciones socioeconómicas en la estatura del adulto. [Influence of Mapuche origin and socioeconomic conditions on adult height]. Revista Médica de Chile, 133, 461–468. doi:/s0034-98872005000400011Google Scholar
Fredriks, A. M., van Buuren, S., van Heel, W. J., Dijkman-Neerincx, R. H., Verloove-Vanhorick, S. P., & Wit, J. M. (2005). Nationwide age references for sitting height, leg length, and sitting height/height ratio, and their diagnostic value for disproportionate growth disorders. Archives of Disease Childhood, 90, 807–812. doi:10.1136/adc.2004.050799Google Scholar
García Coll, C., Akerman, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). Cultural influences on developmental processes and outcomes: Implications for the study of development and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 333–356.Google Scholar
Gilliam, W. S., & Shahar, G. (2006). Preschool and child care expulsion and suspension: Rates and predictors in one state. Infants and Young Children, 19, 228–245. doi:10.1097/00001163-200607000-00007Google Scholar
Gonzalez-Mesa, E., Cazorla-Granados, O., & Gonzalez-Valenzuela, M. J. (2016). The influence of obstetric variables on school achievement, intelligence and neuropsychological development in a sample of Spanish twins at the age of six: A retrospective study. Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine, 29, 1595–1602. doi:10.3109/14767058.2015.1055724Google Scholar
Grantham-McGregor, S., Cheung, Y. B., Cueto, S., Glewwe, P., Richter, L., Strupp, B., & International Child Development Steering Group. (2007). Developmental potential in the first 5 years for children in developing countries. Lancet, 369, 60–70. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60032-4Google Scholar
Guerrero, A. D., Mao, C., Fuller, B., Bridges, M., Franke, T., & Kuo, A. A. (2016). Racial and ethnic disparities in early childhood obesity: Growth trajectories in body mass index. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 3, 129–137. doi:10.1007/s40615-015-0122-yGoogle Scholar
Halberstadt, A. G., & Lozada, F. T. (2011). Emotion development in infancy through the lens of culture. Emotion Review, 3, 158–168. doi:10.1177/1754073910387946Google Scholar
Harkness, S., & Super, C. M. (1994). The developmental niche: A theoretical framework for analyzing the household production of health. Social Science & Medicine, 38, 217–226.Google Scholar
Hedderley, D., & Wakeling, I. (1995). A comparison of imputation techniques for internal preference mapping using Monte Carlo simulation. Food Quality and Preference, 6, 281–297. doi:10.1016/0950-3293(95)00030-5Google Scholar
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). Most people are not WEIRD. Nature, 466, 29. doi:10.1038/466029aGoogle Scholar
Holland, M. L., Malmberg, J., & Peacock, G. G. (2017). Emotional and behavioral problems of young children. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Jones, A. (2018). Race, socioeconomic status, and health during childhood: A longitudinal examination of racial/ethnic differences in parental socioeconomic timing and child obesity risk. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15. doi:10.3390/ijerph15040728Google Scholar
Kagawa, R. M., Fernald, L. C., & Behrman, J. R. (2016). Weight status and behavioral problems among very young children in Chile. PLOS ONE, 11, e0161380. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0161380Google Scholar
Keller, H., & Otto, H. (2009). The cultural socialization of emotion regulation during infancy. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40, 996–1011. doi:10.1177/0022022109348576Google Scholar
Lauderdale, D. S., & Rathouz, P. J. (2000). Body mass index in a US national sample of Asian Americans: Effects of nativity, years since immigration and socioeconomic status. International Journal of Obesity, 24, 1188–1194. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801365Google Scholar
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253.Google Scholar
Masten, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 491–495. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000222Google Scholar
McKee, L., Roland, E., Coffelt, N., Olson, A. L., Forehand, R., Massari, C., … Zens, M. S. (2007). Harsh discipline and child problem behaviors: The roles of positive parenting and gender. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 187–196. doi:10.1007/s10896-007-9070-6Google Scholar
Mesman, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2012). Unequal in opportunity, equal in process: Parental sensitivity promotes positive child development in ethnic minority families. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 239–250. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00223.xGoogle Scholar
Mesquita, B. (2001). Emotions in collectivist and individualist contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 68–74. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.68Google Scholar
Miner, J. L., & Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (2008). Trajectories of externalizing behavior from age 2 to age 9: Relations with gender, temperament, ethnicity, parenting, and rater. Developmental Psychology, 44, 771–786. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.771Google Scholar
Molina, G., Weiser, T. G., Lipsitz, S. R., Esquivel, M. M., Uribe-Leitz, T., Azad, T., … Haynes, A. B. (2015). Relationship between Cesarean delivery rate and maternal and neonatal mortality. Journal of the American Medical Association, 314, 2263–2270. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.15553Google Scholar
Molineaux, B. J. (2017). Native and non-native perception of stress in Mapudungun: Assessing structural maintenance in the phonology of an endangered language. Language and Speech, 60, 48–64. doi:10.1177/0023830916628899Google Scholar
Murray, M. (2012). Childbirth in Santiago de Chile: Stratification, intervention, and child centeredness. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 26, 319–337. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1387.2012.01221.xGoogle Scholar
Neece, C. L., Green, S. A., & Baker, B. L. (2012). Parenting stress and child behavior problems: A transactional relationship across time. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 117, 48–66. doi:10.1352/1944-7558-117.1.48Google Scholar
Ramirez-Velez, R., Lopez-Cifuentes, M. F., Correa-Bautista, J. E., Gonzalez-Ruiz, K., Gonzalez-Jimenez, E., Cordoba-Rodriguez, D. P., … Schmidt-RioValle, J. (2016). Triceps and subscapular skinfold thickness percentiles and cut-offs for overweight and obesity in a population-based sample of schoolchildren and adolescents in Bogota, Colombia. Nutrients, 8. doi:10.3390/nu8100595Google Scholar
Raver, C. C. (2002). Emotions matter: Making the case for the role of young children's emotional development for early school readiness. Social Policy Report, 16.Google Scholar
Rescorla, L. A., Achenbach, T. M., Ivanova, M. Y., Harder, V. S., Otten, L., Bilenberg, N., … Dobrean, A. (2011). International comparisons of behavioral and emotional problems in preschool children: Parents' reports from 24 societies. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40, 456–467. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.563472Google Scholar
Reynolds, S. A., Fernald, L. C. H., & Behrman, J. R. (2017). Mothers' labor market choices and child development outcomes in Chile. SSM Population Health, 3, 756–766. doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2017.08.010Google Scholar
Rommens, D. (2017). Living the territoriality: Mapuche tourism and development. Cuhso.Cultura-Hombre-Sociedad, 27, 51–88. doi:10.7770/CUHSO-V27N1-ART134Google Scholar
Rothhammer, P., Carrasco, X., Henríquez, H., Andrade, C., Valenzuela, M., Aboitiz, F., & Rothhammer, F. (2005). Bajo riesgo de déficit atencional / hiperactividad en niños aymarás: Implicancias genéticas, antropológicas y culturales. Chungará (Arica), 37, 145–149. doi:10.4067/S0717-73562005000200004Google Scholar
Sadler, M., & Obach, A. (2006). Pautas de crianza mapuche. Estudio Significaciones, actitudes y prácticas de familias mapuches en relación a la crianza y cuidado infantil de los niños y niñas desde la gestación hasta los cinco años. Chile: CIEG, Universidad de Chile y CIGES, Universidad de La Frontera.Google Scholar
Scott, L., & Howex, C. (2011). Ethnic differences in social-emotional development in preschool: The impact of teacher child relationships and classroom quality. School Psychology Quarterly, 26, 202–214. doi:10.1037/a0024117Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Connell, A., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Gardner, F. (2009). Improvements in maternal depression as a mediator of intervention effects on early childhood problem behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 417–439. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000236Google Scholar
Spiker, D., Ferguson, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1993). Enhancing maternal interactive behavior and child social competence in low birth weight, premature infants. Child Development, 64, 754–768. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb02941.xGoogle Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Psychopathology as an outcome of development. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 251–268. doi:10.1017/S0954579497002046Google Scholar
Stoll, K. H., Hauck, Y. L., Downe, S., Payne, D., Hall, W. A., & International Childbirth Attitudes—Prior to Pregnancy Study Team. (2017). Preference for cesarean section in young nulligravid women in eight OECD countries and implications for reproductive health education. Reproductive Health, 14, 116. doi:10.1186/s12978-017-0354-xGoogle Scholar
Sundquist, J., & Johansson, S. (1998). The influence of socioeconomic status, ethnicity and lifestyle on body mass index in a longitudinal study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 27, 57–63. doi:10.1093/ije/27.1.57Google Scholar
Torri, M. C., & Laplante, J. (2013). Traditional medicine and biomedicine among Mapuche communities in Temuco, Chile: New forms of medical pluralism in health care delivery. Anthropologica, 55, 413–423.Google Scholar
Treit, S., Zhou, D., Chudley, A. E., Andrew, G., Rasmussen, C., Nikkel, S. M., … Beaulieu, C. (2016). Relationships between head circumference, brain volume and cognition in children with prenatal alcohol exposure. PLOS ONE, 11, e0150370. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0150370Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1990). Attachment in Surinam-Dutch families: A contribution to the cross-cultural study of attachment. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 13, 333–344. doi:10.1177/016502549001300306Google Scholar
Vicente, P., Rioseco, P., Saldivia, S., Kohn, R., & Torres, S. (2005) Prevalencia de trastornos psiquiátricos en Latinoamérica: Revisión crítica. Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría, 34, 506–514.Google Scholar
WHO. (2011). WHO Anthro (version 3.2.2, January 2011) and macros. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/childgrowth/software/en/Google Scholar
Widyanti, A., Susanti, L., Sutalaksana, I. Z., & Muslim, K. (2015). Ethnic differences in Indonesian anthropometry data: Evidence from three different largest ethnics. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 47, 72–78. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2015.02.008Google Scholar
Yaman, A., Mesman, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Linting, M. (2010). Parenting in an individualistic culture with a collectivistic cultural background: The case of Turkish immigrant families with toddlers in the Netherlands. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 617–628. doi:10.1007/s10826-009-9346-yGoogle Scholar
Yap, W. S., Chan, C. C., Chan, S. P., & Wang, Y. T. (2001). Ethnic differences in anthropometry among adult Singaporean Chinese, Malays and Indians, and their effects on lung volumes. Respiratory Medicine, 95, 297–304. doi:10.1053/rmed.2001.1038Google Scholar
Zong, X. N., & Li, H. (2013). Construction of a new growth references for China based on urban Chinese children: Comparison with the WHO growth standards. PLOS ONE, 8, e59569. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059569Google Scholar