Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T05:54:02.126Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Pathways linking adverse environments to emerging adults’ substance abuse and depressive symptoms: A prospective analysis of rural African American men

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 July 2020

Steven M. Kogan Open the ORCID record for Steven M. Kogan [Opens in a new window] ,
Dayoung Bae ,
Junhan Cho ,
Alicia K. Smith  and
Shota Nishitani
Steven M. Kogan*
Affiliation:
Department of Human Development and Family Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
Dayoung Bae
Affiliation:
Center for Family Research, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
Junhan Cho
Affiliation:
Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Alicia K. Smith
Affiliation:
Department of School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
Shota Nishitani
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA Research Center for Child Mental Development, University of Fukui, Fukui, Japan
*
Author for correspondence: Steven Kogan, Human Development and Family Science, 405 Sanford Drive, University of Georgia, Athens, GA30602; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

For African American emerging adult men, developmental challenges are evident in their escalating substance abuse and depressive symptoms; this is particularly true for men from low-resource communities. The present study tests a developmental model linking childhood adversity and contemporaneous contextual stressors to increases in emerging adults’ substance use and depressive symptoms, indirectly, via increases in defensive/hostile relational schemas and social developmental risk factors (e.g., risky peers and romantic partners, lack of involvement in school or work). We also advance exploratory hypotheses regarding DNA methylation in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) as a moderator of the effects of stress on relational schemas. Hypotheses were tested with three waves of data from 505 rural African American men aged 19–25 years. Adverse childhood experiences predicted exposure to emerging adult contextual stressors. Contextual stressors forecast increases in defensive/hostile relational schemas, which increased social developmental risk factors. Social developmental risk factors proximally predicted increases in substance abuse and depressive symptoms. OXTR DNA methylation moderated the effects of contextual stressors on defensive/hostile relational schemas. Findings suggest that early exposures to stress carry forward to affect the development of social developmental risk factors in emerging adulthood, which place rural African American men at risk for increased substance abuse and depressive symptoms during the emerging adult years.

Keywords

African American mendepressive symptomsemerging adulthoodsocial developmentsubstance abuse
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 33 , Issue 4 , October 2021 , pp. 1496 - 1506
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. New York, NY: Norton.Google Scholar
Arnett, JJ. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties. New York: NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Arnett, JJ, & Schwab, J. (2012). The Clark University Poll of Emerging Adults: Thriving, struggling, and hopeful. Worcester, MA: Clark University.Google Scholar
Bachman, J. G., O'Malley, P. M., Schulenberg, J. E., Johnston, L. D., Bryant, A. L., & Merline, A. C. (2014). The decline of substance use in young adulthood: Changes in social activities, roles, and beliefs. London, UK: Psychology Press.10.4324/9781410606013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2013). Sniffing around oxytocin: Review and meta-analyses of trials in healthy and clinical groups with implications for pharmacotherapy. Translational Psychiatry, 3(5), Article e258. doi:10.1038/tp.2013.34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baldwin, M. W. (1995). Relational schemas and cognition in close relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 12, 547–552. doi:10.1177/0265407595124008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beach, S. R. H., Lei, M. K., Brody, G. H., & Philibert, R. A. (2018). Prevention of early substance use mediates, and variation at SLC6A4 moderates, SAAF intervention effects on OXTR methylation. Prevention Science, 19, 90–100. doi:10.1007/s11121-016-0709-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Björgvinsson, T., Kertz, S. J., Bigda-Peyton, J. S., McCoy, K. L., & Aderka, I. M. (2013). Psychometric properties of the CES-D-10 in a psychiatric sample. Assessment, 20, 429–436. doi:10.1177/1073191113481998CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y.-F., & Kogan, S. M. (2010). A cascade model connecting life stress to risk behavior among rural African American emerging adults. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 667–678. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000350CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Stoneman, Z., Flor, D. L., & McCrary, C. (1994). Religion's role in organizing family relationships: Family process in rural, two-parent African American families. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 878–888. doi:10.2307/353600CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, N. (2012). The epigenetics revolution: How modern biology is rewriting our understanding of genetics, disease, and inheritance. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Catalano, R. F., & Hawkins, J. D. (1996). The Social Development Model: A theory of antisocial behavior. In Hawkins, J. D. (Ed.), Delinquency and crime: Current theories (pp. 149–197). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Cho, J., & Kogan, S. M. (2016). Risk and protective processes predicting rural African American young men's substance abuse. American Journal of Community Psychology, 58, 422–433. doi:10.1002/ajcp.12104CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, S., & Coolen, M. (2007). Genomic profiling of CpG methylation and allelic specificity using quantitative high-throughput mass spectrometry: Critical evaluation and improvements. Nucleic Acids Research, 35, e119. doi:10.1093/nar/gkm409Google Scholar
Cohen, D. A., Farley, T. A., & Mason, K. (2003). Why is poverty unhealthy? Social and physical mediators. Social Science & Medicine, 57, 1631–1641. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00015-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costello, D. M., Swendsen, J., Rose, J. S., & Dierker, L. C. (2008). Risk and protective factors associated with trajectories of depressed mood from adolescence to early adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 173–183. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.173CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74–101. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crockett, LJ, & Carlo, G. (2016). Ethnic and racial minority youth in the United States: An overview.. In Crockett, L. J., & Carlo, G. (Eds.), Advancing responsible adolescent development: Vol. 21. Rural ethnic minority youth and families in the United States: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 1–12). New York, NY: Springer International. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20976-0_1Google Scholar
Dadds, M. R., Moul, C., Cauchi, A., Dobson-Stone, C., Hawes, D. J., Brennan, J., & Ebstein, R. E. (2014). Methylation of the oxytocin receptor gene and oxytocin blood levels in the development of psychopathy. Development & Psychopathology, 26, 33–40. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000497CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliott, D. S., & Menard, S. (1996). Delinquent friends and delinquent behavior: Temporal and developmental patterns. In Hawkins, J. D. (Ed.), Delinquency and crime: Current theories (pp. 28–67). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Epstein, J. A., Botvin, G. J., Griffin, K. W., & Diaz, T. (2001). Protective factors buffer effects of risk factors on alcohol use among inner-city youth. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 11, 77–90. doi:10.1300/J029v11n01_04CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estrada-Martínez, L. M., Caldwell, C. H., Bauermeister, J. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2012). Stressors in multiple life-domains and the risk for externalizing and internalizing behaviors among African Americans during emerging adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 1600–1612. doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9778-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., … Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14, 245–258. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children's perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1016–1024. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.21.6.1016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galambos, N. L., Barker, E. T., & Krahn, H. J. (2006). Depression, self-esteem, and anger in emerging adulthood: Seven-year trajectories. Developmental Psychology, 42, 350–365. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.350CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbert, K. L., Ray, R., Siddiqi, A., Shetty, S., Baker, E. A., Elder, K., & Griffith, D. M. (2016). Visible and invisible trends in Black men's health: Pitfalls and promises for addressing racial, ethnic, and gender inequities in health. Annual Review of Public Health, 37, 295–311. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032315-021556CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gouin, J. P., Zhou, Q. Q., Booij, L., Boivin, M., Cote, S. M., Hebert, M., … Vitaro, F. (2017). Associations among oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) DNA methylation in adulthood, exposure to early life adversity, and childhood trajectories of anxiousness. Scientific Reports, 7, Article 7446. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-07950-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, SG, Connelly, JJ, Towers, AJ, Johnson, J, Biscocho, D, Markunas, CA, … Pericak-Vance, MA. (2009). Genomic and epigenetic evidence for oxytocin receptor deficiency in autism. BMC Medicine, 7, Article 62. 10.1186/1741-7015-7-6210.1186/1741-7015-7-62CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C. (2006). Stress generation in depression: Reflections on origins, research, and future directions. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1065–1082. doi:10.1002/jclp.20293CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammond, W. P. (2012). Taking it like a man: Masculine role norms as moderators of the racial discrimination-depressive symptoms association among African American men. American Journal of Public Health, 102, S232–S241. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300485CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardie, J. H., & Lucas, A. (2010). Economic factors and relationship quality among young couples: Comparing cohabitation and marriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 1141–1154. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00755.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, P. A., Fulkerson, J. A., & Beebe, T. J. (1998). DSM-IV substance use disorder criteria for adolescents: A critical examination based on a statewide school survey. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 486–492. doi:10.1176/ajp.155.4.486CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Health Resources and Services Administration. (2011). The health and well-being of children in rural areas: A portrait of the nation 2007. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.Google Scholar
Heckathorn, DD. (1997). Respondent-driven sampling: A new approach to the study of hidden populations. Social Problems, 44, 174–199. doi:10.2307/3096941CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heckathorn, DD. (2002). Respondent-driven sampling II: Deriving valid population estimates from chain-referral samples of hidden populations. Social Problems, 49, 11–34. doi:10.1525/sp.2002.49.1.11CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hope, E. C., Hoggard, L. S., & Thomas, A. (2015). Emerging into adulthood in the face of racial discrimination: Physiological, psychological, and sociopolitical consequences for African American youth. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 1, Article 342. doi:10.1037/tps0000041.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hostinar, C. E., & Gunnar, M. R. (2013). The developmental psychobiology of stress and emotion in childhood. In Weiner, I. B., Freedheim, D. K., & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of psychology (2nd ed., pp. 121–141). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Huang, R. C., Galati, J. C., Burrows, S., Beilin, L. J., Li, X., Pennell, C. E., … Craig, J. M. (2012). DNA methylation of the IGF2/H19 imprinting control region and adiposity distribution in young adults. Clinical Epigenetics, 4, Article 21. doi:10.1186/1868-7083-4-21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Insel, TR. (2010). The challenge of translation in social neuroscience: A review of oxytocin, vasopressin, and affiliative behavior. Neuron, 65, 768–779. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2010.03.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jack, A., Connelly, J. J., & Morris, J. P. (2012). DNA methylation of the oxytocin receptor gene predicts neural response to ambiguous social stimuli. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, Article 280. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, W. E. Jr. (2010). Social work with African American males: Health, mental health, and social policy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2011). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2010. Volume I, Secondary school students. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Kalmakis, K. A., & Chandler, G. E. (2015). Health consequences of adverse childhood experiences: A systematic review. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners, 27, 457–465. doi:10.1002/2327-6924.12215CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, K., & Forehand, R. (2000). Family processes as resources for African American children exposed to a constellation of sociodemographic risk factors: Family Health Project Group. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 53–65. doi:10.1207/S15374424jccp2901_6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kogan, SM, Cho, J, & Oshri, A. (2016). The influence of childhood adversity on rural Black men's sexual risk behavior. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 50, 813–822. doi:10.1007/s12160-016-9807-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kogan, S. M., Lei, M.-K., Grange, C. R., Simons, R. L., Brody, G. H., Gibbons, F. X., & Chen, Y.-F. (2013). The contribution of community and family contexts to African American young adults’ romantic relationship health: A prospective analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 878–890. doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9935-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumsta, R., Hummel, E., Chen, F. S., & Heinrichs, M. (2013). Epigenetic regulation of the oxytocin receptor gene: implications for behavioral neuroscience. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 7, Article 83. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2013.00083CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kusui, C., Kimura, T., Ogita, K., Nakamura, H., Matsumura, Y., Koyama, M., … Murata, Y. (2001). DNA methylation of the human oxytocin receptor gene promoter regulates tissue-specific gene suppression. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 289, 681–686. doi:10.1006/bbrc.2001.6024CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). The Schedule of Racist Events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 144–168. doi:10.1177/00957984960222002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langie, S. A. S., Moisse, M., Declerck, K., Koppen, G., Godderis, L., Vanden Berghe, W., … De Boever, P.. (2017). Salivary DNA methylation profiling: Aspects to consider for biomarker identification. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, 121, 93–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bcpt.2017.121.issue-S3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, J. S., Taylor, R. J., & Chatters, L. M. (1995). A multidimensional measure of religious involvement for African Americans. Sociological Quarterly, 36, 157–173. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1995.tb02325.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manyema, M., Norris, S. A., & Richter, L. M. (2018). Stress begets stress: The association of adverse childhood experiences with psychological distress in the presence of adult life stress. BMC Public Health, 18, 835–835. doi:10.1186/s12889-018-5767-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matthews, D. D., Hammond, W. P., Nuru-Jeter, A., Cole-Lewis, Y., & Melvin, T. (2013). Racial discrimination and depressive symptoms among African-American men: The mediating and moderating roles of masculine self-reliance and John Henryism. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14, 35–46. doi:10.1037/a0028436CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maud, C., Ryan, J., McIntosh, J. E., & Olsson, C. A. (2018). The role of oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) DNA methylation (DNAm) in human social and emotional functioning: A systematic narrative review. BMC Psychiatry, 18, 154. doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1740-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGee, Z. T. (2003). Community violence and adolescent development: An examination of risk and protective factors among African American youth. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 19, 293–314. doi:10.1177/1043986203254527CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meloni, M. (2014). The social brain meets the reactive genome: Neuroscience, epigenetics and the new social biology. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 309. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00309CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, A., Steele, M., Dube, S. R., Bate, J., Bonuck, K., Meissner, P., … Steele, H. (2014). Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) questionnaire and Adult Attachment Interview (AAI): Implications for parent child relationships. Child Abuse and Neglect, 38, 224–233. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.09.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2015). Mplus user's guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.Google Scholar
National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2003). Drug use among racial/ethnic minorities, revised. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.Google Scholar
Nishitani, S., Parets, S. E., Haas, B. W., & Smith, A. K. (2018). DNA methylation analysis from saliva samples for epidemiological studies. Epigenetics, 13, 352–362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15592294.2018.1461295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noro, F., Gianfagna, F., Gialluisi, A., De Curtis, A., Di Castelnuovo, A., Napoleone, E., … Donati, M. B. (2019). ZBTB12 DNA methylation is associated with coagulation- and inflammation-related blood cell parameters: findings from the Moli-family cohort. Clinical Epigenetics, 11, 74. doi:10.1186/s13148-019-0665-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ostaszewski, K., & Zimmerman, M. (2006). The effects of cumulative risks and promotive factors on urban adolescent alcohol and other drug use: A longitudinal study of resiliency. American Journal of Community Psychology, 38, 237–249. doi:10.1007/s10464-006-9076-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearlin, L. I., Schieman, S., Fazio, E. M., & Meersman, S. C. (2005). Stress, health, and the life course: Some conceptual perspectives. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46, 205–219. doi:10.1177/002214650504600206CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Probst, J. C., Samuels, M. E., Jespersen, K. P., Willer, K., Swann, R. S., & McDuffie, J. A. (2002). Minorities in rural America: An overview of population characteristics. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina.Google Scholar
Puglia, M. H., Connelly, J. J., & Morris, J. P. (2018). Epigenetic regulation of the oxytocin receptor is associated with neural response during selective social attention. Translational Psychiatry, 8, Article 116. doi:10.1038/s41398-018-0159-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Puglia, M. H., Lillard, T. S., Morris, J. P., & Connelly, J. J. (2015). Epigenetic modification of the oxytocin receptor gene influences the perception of anger and fear in the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 3308–3313. doi:10.1073/pnas.1422096112CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES–D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, K., Ferraro, A. J., Lucier-Greer, M., & Barber, C. (2015). Adverse family influences on emerging adult depressive symptoms: A stress process approach to identifying intervention points. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 2710–2720. doi:10.1007/s10826-014-0073-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riggs, S. A., & Han, G. (2009). Predictors of anxiety and depression in emerging adulthood. Journal of Adult Development, 16, Article 39. doi:10.1007/s10804-009-9051-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riolo, S. A., Nguyen, T. A., Greden, J. F., & King, C. A. (2005). Prevalence of depression by race/ethnicity: Findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 998–1000. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.047225CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogosch, F. A., Dackis, M. N., & Cicchetti, D. (2011). Child maltreatment and allostatic load: Consequences for physical and mental health in children from low-income families. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 1107–1124. doi:10.1017/S0954579411000587CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sameroff, A. (2006). Identifying risk and protective factors for healthy child development. In Clarke-Stewart, A. & Dunn, J. (Eds.), Families count: Effects on child and adolescent development (pp. 53–76). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511616259.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918–924. doi:10.1126/science.277.5328.918CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulenberg, J. E., & Zarrett, N. R. (2006). Mental health during emerging adulthood: Continuity and discontinuity in courses, causes, and functions. In Arnett, J. J. & Tanner, J. L. (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 135–172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.10.1037/11381-006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simons, R. L., & Burt, C. H. (2011). Learning to be bad: Adverse social conditions, social schemas, and crime. Criminology, 49, 553–598. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00231.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simons, R. L., Lei, M. K., Beach, S. R. H., Brody, G. H., Philibert, R. A., & Gibbons, F. X. (2011). Social environment, genes, and aggression: Evidence supporting the differential susceptibility perspective. American Sociological Review, 76, 883–912. doi:10.1177/0003122411427580CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simons, R. L., Lei, M. K., Beach, S. R. H., Cutrona, C. E., & Philibert, R. A. (2017). Methylation of the oxytocin receptor gene mediates the effect of adversity on negative schemas and depression. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 725–736. doi:10.1017/S0954579416000420CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simons, R. L., Simons, L. G., Lei, M. K., & Landor, A. M. (2012). Relational schemas, hostile romantic relationships, and beliefs about marriage among young African American adults. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 29, 77–101. doi:10.1177/0265407511406897CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smearman, E. L., Almli, L. M., Conneely, K. N., Brody, G. H., Sales, J. M., Bradley, B., … Smith, A. K. (2016). Oxytocin receptor genetic and epigenetic variations: Association with child abuse and adult psychiatric symptoms. Child Development, 87, 122–134. doi:10.1111/cdev.12493CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, A. K., Kilaru, V., Klengel, T., Mercer, K. B., Bradley, B., Conneely, K. N., … Binder, E. B. (2015). DNA extracted from saliva for methylation studies of psychiatric traits: Evidence tissue specificity and relatedness to brain. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 168, 36–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.v168.1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stewart, E. A., & Simons, R. L. (2006). Structure and culture in African American adolescent violence: A partial test of the “Code of the Street” thesis. Justice Quarterly, 23, 1–33. doi:10.1080/07418820600552378CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoddard, S. A., Whiteside, L., Zimmerman, M. A., Cunningham, R. M., Chermack, S. T., & Walton, M. A. (2013). The relationship between cumulative risk and promotive factors and violent behavior among urban adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 51, 57–65. doi:10.1007/s10464-012-9541-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stone, A. L., Becker, L. G., Huber, A. M., & Catalano, R. F. (2012). Review of risk and protective factors of substance use and problem use in emerging adulthood. Addictive Behaviors, 37, 747–775. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.02.014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings, NSDUH Series H-48, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 14-4863. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.Google Scholar
Suchiman, H. E. D., Slieker, R. C., Kremer, D., Slagboom, P. E., Heijmans, B. T., & Tobi, E. W. (2015). Design, measurement and processing of region-specific DNA methylation assays: the mass spectrometry-based method EpiTYPER. Frontiers in Genetics, 6, 287. doi:10.3389/fgene.2015.00287CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Syed, M., & Mitchell, L. L. (2013). Race, ethnicity, and emerging adulthood: Retrospect and prospects. Emerging Adulthood, 1, 83–95. doi:10.1177/2167696813480503CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Szyf, M., & Bick, J. (2013). DNA methylation: A mechanism for embedding early life experiences in the genome. Child Development, 84, 49–57. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01793.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, S. E. (2007). Social support. In Friedman, H. S. & Silver, R. C. (Eds.), Foundations of health psychology (pp. 145–171). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Thomson, P., & Jaque, S. V. (2017). Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) and Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) in a non-clinical population. Child Abuse & Neglect, 70, 255–263. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Umberson, D., Crosnoe, R., & Reczek, C. (2010). Social relationships and health behavior across the life course. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 139–157. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-120011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Umberson, D., Williams, K., Thomas, P. A., Liu, H., & Thomeer, M. B. (2014). Race, gender, and chains of disadvantage: Childhood adversity, social relationships, and health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 55, 20–38. doi:10.1177/0022146514521426CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Utsey, S. O., Giesbrecht, N., Hook, J., & Stanard, P. M. (2008). Cultural, sociofamilial, and psychological resources that inhibit psychological distress in African Americans exposed to stressful life events and race-related stress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55, 49–62. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.55.1.49CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Stroud, C. B., Mineka, S., Hammen, C., Zinbarg, R. E., Wolitzky-Taylor, K., & Craske, M. G. (2015). Chronic and episodic interpersonal stress as statistically unique predictors of depression in two samples of emerging adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 918–932. doi:10.1037/abn0000088CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallace, J. M. Jr., Brown, T. N., Bachman, J. G., & LaViest, T. A. (2003). Religion, race and abstinence from drug use among American adolescents. Monitoring the Future Occasional Paper 58. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research. Retrieved from http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/occpapers/occ58.pdfGoogle Scholar
Walsemann, K. M., Gee, G. C., & Geronimus, A. T. (2009). Ethnic differences in trajectories of depressive symptoms: Disadvantage in family background, high school experiences, and adult characteristics. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50, 82–98. doi:10.1177/002214650905000106CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ward, E., & Mengesha, M. (2013). Depression in African American men: A review of what we know and where we need to go from here. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 83, 386–397. doi:10.1111/ajop.12015CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watkins, D. C. (2012). Depression over the adult life course for African American men: toward a framework for research and practice. American Journal of Men's Health, 6, 194–210. doi:10.1177/1557988311424072CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wei, M., Russell, D. W., Mallinckrodt, B., & Vogel, D. L. (2007). The Experiences in Close Relationship Scale (ECR)-short form: Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 88, 187–204. doi:10.1080/00223890701268041CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, DR, & Mohammed, SA. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 20–47. doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 200–208. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.2.200CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zapolski, T. C. B., Pedersen, S. L., McCarthy, D. M., & Smith, G. T. (2014). Less drinking, yet more problems: Understanding African American drinking and related problems. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 188–223. doi:10.1037/a0032113CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Kogan et al. supplementary material

Table S2

Download Kogan et al. supplementary material(File)
File 14.4 KB
Supplementary material: File

Kogan et al. supplementary material

Table S1

Download Kogan et al. supplementary material(File)
File 17.1 KB