Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T02:06:41.392Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Difficulties with emotion regulation as a transdiagnostic mechanism linking child maltreatment with the emergence of psychopathology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 April 2019

David G. Weissman ,
Debbie Bitran ,
Adam Bryant Miller ,
Jonathan D. Schaefer ,
Margaret A. Sheridan  and
Katie A. McLaughlin
David G. Weissman*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
Debbie Bitran
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
Adam Bryant Miller
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Jonathan D. Schaefer
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
Margaret A. Sheridan
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Katie A. McLaughlin
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: David G. Weissman, Harvard University, William James, Hall, 33 Kirkland Street, Cambrige, MA, 02138; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Childhood maltreatment is associated with increased risk for most forms of psychopathology. We examine emotion dysregulation as a transdiagnostic mechanism linking maltreatment with general psychopathology. A sample of 262 children and adolescents participated; 162 (61.8%) experienced abuse or exposure to domestic violence. We assessed four emotion regulation processes (cognitive reappraisal, attention bias to threat, expressive suppression, and rumination) and emotional reactivity. Psychopathology symptoms were assessed concurrently and at a 2-year longitudinal follow-up. A general psychopathology factor (p factor), representing co-occurrence of psychopathology symptoms across multiple internalizing and externalizing domains, was estimated using confirmatory factor analysis. Maltreatment was associated with heightened emotional reactivity and greater use of expressive suppression and rumination. The association of maltreatment with attention bias varied across development, with maltreated children exhibiting a bias toward threat and adolescents a bias away from threat. Greater emotional reactivity and engagement in rumination mediated the longitudinal association between maltreatment and increased general psychopathology over time. Emotion dysregulation following childhood maltreatment occurs at multiple stages of the emotion generation process, in some cases varies across development, and serves as a transdiagnostic mechanism linking child maltreatment with general psychopathology.

Keywords

adversityattention biasp factorruminationthreat
Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 31 , Special Issue 3: Emotion Dysregulation and Emerging Psychopathology , August 2019 , pp. 899 - 915
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abela, J. R. Z., Brozina, K., & Haigh, E. P. (2002). An examination of the response styles theory of depression in third- and seventh-grade children: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 515–527. doi:10.1023/A:1019873015594Google Scholar
Abela, J. R. Z., Hankin, B. L., Sheshko, D. M., Fishman, M. B., & Stolow, D. (2012). Multi-wave prospective examination of the stress-reactivity extension of response styles theory of depression in high-risk children and early adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 277–287. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9563-xGoogle Scholar
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4-18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Aldao, A., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2010). Specificity of cognitive emotion regulation strategies: A transdiagnostic examination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 947–983. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.06.002Google Scholar
Aldao, A., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2012a). The influence of context on the implementation of adaptive emotion regulation strategies. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50, 493–501. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2012.04.004Google Scholar
Aldao, A., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2012b). When are adaptive strategies most predictive of psychopathology? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 276–281. doi:10.1037/a0023598Google Scholar
Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 217–237. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004Google Scholar
Balan, R., Dobrean, A., Roman, G. D., & Balazsi, R. (2017). Indirect effects of parenting practices on internalizing problems among adolescents: The role of expressive suppression. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26, 40–47. doi:10.1007/s10826-016-0532-4Google Scholar
Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 1–24. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P. (2015). Future directions in emotion dysregulation and youth psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 133, 1–24. doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1038827Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P., & Zisner, A. (2017). Motivation, emotion regulation, and the latent structure of psychopathology: An integrative and convergent historical perspective. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 119, 108–118. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2016.12.014Google Scholar
Bernstein, D. P., Ahluvalia, T., Pogge, D., & Handelsman, L. (1997). Validity of the childhood trauma questionnaire in an adolescent psychiatric population. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 340–348. doi:10.1097/00004583-199703000-00012Google Scholar
Bernstein, D. P., Fink, L., Handelsman, L., Foote, J., Lovejoy, M., Wenzel, K., … Ruggiero, J. (1994). Initial reliability and validity of a new retrospective measure of child abuse and neglect. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1231–1236. doi:10.1176/ajp.151.8.1132Google Scholar
Bifulco, A., Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (1994). Childhood Experience of Care and Abuse (CECA): A retrospective interview measure. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 1419–1435. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1994.tb01284.xGoogle Scholar
Bifulco, A., Brown, G. W., Lillie, A., & Jarvis, J. (1997). Memories of childhood neglect and abuse: Corroboration in a series of sisters. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 38, 364–375. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01520.xGoogle Scholar
Birmaher, B., Brent, D. A., Chiappetta, L., Bridge, J., Monga, S., & Baugher, M. (1999). Psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): A replication study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1230–1236. doi:10.1097/00004583-199910000-00011Google Scholar
Birmaher, B., Khetarpal, S., Brent, D., Cully, M., Balach, L., Kaufman, J., & Neer, S. M. K. (1997). The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): Scale construction and psychometric characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 545–553. doi:10.1097/00004583-199704000-00018Google Scholar
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Pollak, S. D., Grasso, D., Voss, J., Mian, N. D., Zobel, E., … Pine, D. S. (2015). Attention bias and anxiety in young children exposed to family violence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 56, 1194–1201. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12397Google Scholar
Brown, H. M., Eley, T. C., Broeren, S., MacLeod, C., Rinck, M., Hadwin, J. A., & Lester, K. J. (2014). Psychometric properties of reaction time based experimental paradigms measuring anxiety-related information-processing biases in children. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28, 97–107. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.11.004Google Scholar
Burns, E. E., Jackson, J. L., & Harding, H. G. (2010). Child maltreatment, emotion regulation, and posttraumatic stress: The impact of emotional abuse. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 19, 801–819. doi:10.1080/10926771.2010.522947Google Scholar
Carver, C. S., Johnson, S. L., & Timpano, K. R. (2017). Toward a functional view of the p factor in psychopathology. Clinical Psychological Science. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/2167702617710037Google Scholar
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality-social, clinical, and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 111–135. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.92.1.111Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Houts, R. M., Belsky, D. W., Goldman-Mellor, S. J., Harrington, H., Israel, S., … Moffitt, T. E. (2014). The p factor: One general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders? Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 119–137. doi:10.1177/2167702613497473Google Scholar
Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2018). All for one and one for all: Mental disorders in one dimension. American Journal of Psychiatry, 175, 831–844. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17121383Google Scholar
Castellanos-Ryan, N., Briere, F. N., O'Leary-Barrett, M., Banaschewski, T., Bokde, A., Bromberg, U., … IMAGEN Consortium. (2016). The structure of psychopathology in adolescence and its common personality and cognitive correlates. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125, 1039–1052. doi:10.1037/abn0000193Google Scholar
Chapman, A., Devue, C., & Grimshaw, G. M. (2017). Fleeting reliability in the dot-probe task. Psychological Research. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s00426-017-0947-6Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Ackerman, B. P., & Izard, C. E. (1995). Emotions and emotion regulation in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 1. doi:10.1017/S0954579400006301Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Curtis, W. J. (2005). An event-related potential study of the processing of affective facial expressions in young children who experienced maltreatment during the first year of life. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 641–677. doi:10.1017/S0954579405050315Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2005). Child maltreatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 409–438. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144029Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., Hall, S. E., & Hajal, N. J. (2017). Emotion dysregulation as a vulnerability to psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 346–386). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Conway, M., Mendelson, M., Giannopoulos, C., Csank, P. A. R., & Holm, S. L. (2004). Childhood and adult sexual abuse, rumination on sadness, and dysphoria. Child Abuse and Neglect, 28, 393–410. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.05.004Google Scholar
Craighead, W. E., Smucker, M. R., Craighead, L. W., & Ilardi, S. S. (1998). Factor analysis of the Children's Depression Inventory in a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10, 156–165. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.156Google Scholar
Dudeney, J., Sharpe, L., & Hunt, C. (2015). Attentional bias towards threatening stimuli in children with anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 40, 66–75. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.05.007Google Scholar
Ernst, M., Pine, D. S., & Hardin, M. (2006). Triadic model of the neurobiology of motivated behavior in adolescence. Psychological Medicine, 36, 299–312. doi:10.1017/S0033291705005891Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D., Hamby, S. L., Ormrod, R., & Turner, H. (2005). The Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire: Reliability, validity, and national norms. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29, 393–412. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.11.001Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D., Shattuck, A., Turner, H. A., & Hamby, S. L. (2014). The lifetime prevalence of child sexual abuse and sexual assault assessed in late adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55, 329–333. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.12.026Google Scholar
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2013). Violence, crime, and abuse exposure in a national sample of children and youth an update. JAMA Pediatrics, 167, 614–621. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.42Google Scholar
Frankenhuis, W. E., & Del Giudice, M. (2012). When do adaptive developmental mechanisms yield maladaptive outcomes? Developmental Psychology, 48, 643–646. doi:10.1037/a0025629Google Scholar
Glaser, J. P., van Os, J., Portegijs, P. J. M., & Myin-Germeys, I. (2006). Childhood trauma and emotional reactivity to daily life stress in adult frequent attenders of general practitioners. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61, 229–236. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.04.014Google Scholar
Gomez, R., Stavropoulos, V., Vance, A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2018). Re-evaluation of the latent structure of common childhood disorders: Is there a general psychopathology factor (p-factor)? International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s11469-018-0017-3Google Scholar
Green, J. G., McLaughlin, K. A., Berglund, P. A., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication: I. Associations with first onset of DSM-IV disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 113–123. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.186Google Scholar
Greene, A. L., & Eaton, N. R. (2017). The temporal stability of the bifactor model of comorbidity: An examination of moderated continuity pathways. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 72, 74–82. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.09.010Google Scholar
Gresham, D., & Gullone, E. (2012). Emotion regulation strategy use in children and adolescents: The explanatory roles of personality and attachment. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 616–621. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.016Google Scholar
Gross, J. J. (1998a). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 224–237. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224Google Scholar
Gross, J. J. (1998b). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2, 271–299. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271Google Scholar
Gross, J. J. (2014). Emotion regulation: Conceptual and empirical foundations. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.). Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed., pp. 3–20). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348–362. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348Google Scholar
Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1997). Hiding feelings: The acute effects of inhibiting negative and positive emotion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 95–103. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.95Google Scholar
Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. (2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In Gross, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Gullone, E., Hughes, E. K., King, N. J., & Tonge, B. (2010). The normative development of emotion regulation strategy use in children and adolescents: A 2-year follow-up study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 51, 567–574. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02183.xGoogle Scholar
Gullone, E., & Taffe, J. (2012). The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ERQ-CA): A psychometric evaluation. Psychological Assessment, 24, 409–417. doi:10.1037/a0025777Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Wewerka, S., Frenn, K., Long, J. D., & Griggs, C. (2009). Developmental changes in hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal activity over the transition to adolescence: Normative changes and associations with puberty. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 69–85. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000054Google Scholar
Guyer, A. E., Silk, J. S., & Nelson, E. E. (2016). The neurobiology of the emotional adolescent: From the inside out. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 70, 74–85. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07.037Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L. (2008). Stability of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression: A short-term prospective multiwave study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 324–333. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.117.2.324Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., Gibb, B. E., Abela, J. R. Z., & Flory, K. (2010). Selective attention to affective stimuli and clinical depression among youths: Role of anxiety and specificity of emotion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 491–501. doi:10.1037/a0019609Google Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. New York: Guildford Press.Google Scholar
Hein, T. C., & Monk, C. S. (2017). Research Review: Neural response to threat in children, adolescents, and adults after child maltreatment—A quantitative meta-analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 58, 222–230. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12651Google Scholar
Heleniak, C., Jenness, J. L., Vander Stoep, A., McCauley, E., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2016). Childhood maltreatment exposure and disruptions in emotion regulation: A transdiagnostic pathway to adolescent internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 40, 394–415. doi:10.1007/s10608-015-9735-zGoogle Scholar
John, O. P., & Gross, J. J. (2004). Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, individual differences, and life span development. Journal of Personality, 72, 1301–1333. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00298.xGoogle Scholar
Jose, P. E., & Brown, I. (2008). When does the gender difference in rumination begin? Gender and age differences in the use of rumination by adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 180–192. doi:10.1007/s10964-006-9166-yGoogle Scholar
Kelly, P. A., Viding, E., Puetz, V. B., Palmer, A. L., Mechelli, A., Pingault, J. B., … McCrory, E. J. (2015). Sex differences in socioemotional functioning, attentional bias, and gray matter volume in maltreated children: A multilevel investigation. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 1591–1601. doi:10.1017/S0954579415000966Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., … Williams, D. R. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. British Journal of Psychiatry, 197, 378–385. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.110.080499Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Mickelson, K. D., & Williams, D. R. (1999). The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 208. doi:10.2307/2676349Google Scholar
Keyes, K. M., Eaton, N. R., Krueger, R. F., McLaughlin, K. A., Wall, M. M., Grant, B. F., & Hasin, D. S. (2012). Childhood maltreatment and the structure of common psychiatric disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 200, 107–115. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.093062Google Scholar
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 51, 706–716. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02202.xGoogle Scholar
Kovacs, M. (1992). Children's Depression Inventory CDI manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Kovacs, M. (2011). Children's Depression Inventory (CDI2). North Tonawanda NY: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Laceulle, O. M., Vollebergh, W. A. M., & Ormel, J. (2015). The structure of psychopathology in adolescence: Replication of a general psychopathology factor in the TRAILS study. Clinical Psychological Science, 3, 850–860. doi:10.1177/2167702614560750Google Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Applegate, B., Hakes, J. K., Zald, D. H., Hariri, A. R., & Rathouz, P. J. (2012). Is there a general factor of prevalent psychopathology during adulthood? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 971–977. doi:10.1037/a0028355Google Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Krueger, R. F., Rathouz, P. J., Waldman, I. D., & Zald, D. H. (2017). A hierarchical causal taxonomy of psychopathology across the life span. Psychological Bulletin, 143, 142–186. doi:10.1037/bul0000069Google Scholar
Larson, R. W., Moneta, G., Richards, M. H., & Wilson, S. (2002). Continuity, stability, and change in daily emotional experience across adolescence. Child Development, 73, 1151–1165. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00464Google Scholar
Lau, J. Y. F., & Waters, A. M. (2017). Annual Research Review: An expanded account of information-processing mechanisms in risk for child and adolescent anxiety and depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 58, 387–407. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12653Google Scholar
LeMoult, J., Humphreys, K. L., King, L. S., Colich, N. L., Price, A. N., Ordaz, S. J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2018). Associations among early life stress, rumination, symptoms of psychopathology, and sex in youth in the early stages of puberty: A moderated mediation analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0430-xGoogle Scholar
Li, C. H. (2016). Confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data: Comparing robust maximum likelihood and diagonally weighted least squares. Behavior Research Methods, 48, 936–949. doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0619-7Google Scholar
Lobue, V., & Deloache, J. S. (2010). Superior detection of threat-relevant stimuli in infancy. Developmental Science, 13, 221–228. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00872.xGoogle Scholar
Lonigan, C. J., & Vasey, M. W. (2009). Negative affectivity, effortful control, and attention to threat-relevant stimuli. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 387–399. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9284-yGoogle Scholar
Lyubomirsky, S., Caldwell, N. D., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1998). Effects of ruminative and distracting responses to depressed mood on retrieval of autobiographical memories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 166–177. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.166Google Scholar
Lyubomirsky, S., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1993). Self-perpetuating properties of dysphoric rumination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 239–249. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.339Google Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., Fairchild, A. J., & Fritz, M. S. (2007). Mediation analysis. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 593. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085542Google Scholar
Martel, M. M., Pan, P. M., Hoffmann, M. S., Gadelha, A., do Rosário, M. C., Mari, J. J., … Salum, G. A. (2017). A general psychopathology factor (P factor) in children: Structural model analysis and external validation through familial risk and child global executive function. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 137–148. doi:10.1037/abn0000205Google Scholar
Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (1996). Some ruminative thoughts. In Wyer, R. S. Jr. (Ed.), Ruminative thoughts: Vol. 9. Advances in social cognition (pp. 1–48). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Maughan, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). Impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children's emotion regulation abilities and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1525–1542. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00488Google Scholar
McCabe, C. J., Kim, D. S., & King, K. M. (2018). Improving present practices in the visual display of interactions. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/2515245917746792Google Scholar
McCrory, E. J., De Brito, S. A., Sebastian, C. L., Mechelli, A., Bird, G., Kelly, P. A., & Viding, E. (2011). Heightened neural reactivity to threat in child victims of family violence. Current Biology, 21, R947–R948. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.10.015Google Scholar
McGrath, J. J., Saha, S., Lim, C. C. W., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Andrade, L. H., … Wojtyniak, B. (2017). Trauma and psychotic experiences: Transnational data from the World Mental Health survey. British Journal of Psychiatry, 211, 373–380. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.117.205955Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Aldao, A., Wisco, B. E., & Hilt, L. M. (2014). Rumination as a transdiagnostic factor underlying transitions between internalizing symptoms and aggressive behavior in early adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 123, 13–23. doi:10.1037/a0035358Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Borkovec, T. D., & Sibrava, N. J. (2007). The effects of worry and rumination on affect states and cognitive activity. Behavior Therapy, 38, 23–38. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.03.003Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2012). Childhood adversities and first onset of psychiatric disorders in a national sample of US adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 1151–1160. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2277Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). Mechanisms linking stressful life events and mental health problems in a prospective, community-based sample of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 144, 153–160. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.06.019Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Kubzansky, L. D., Dunn, E. C., Waldinger, R., Vaillant, G., & Koenen, K. C. (2010). Childhood social environment, emotional reactivity to stress, and mood and anxiety disorders across the life course. Depression and Anxiety, 27, 1087–1094. doi:10.1002/da.20762Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., & Lambert, H. K. (2017). Child trauma exposure and psychopathology: Mechanisms of risk and resilience. Current Opinion in Psychology, 14, 29–34. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.10.004Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2011). Rumination as a transdiagnostic factor in depression and anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49, 186–193. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.12.006Google Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., Peverill, M., Gold, A. L., Alves, S., & Sheridan, M. A. (2015). Child maltreatment and neural systems underlying emotion regulation. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 54, 753–762. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2015.06.010Google Scholar
McRae, K., Gross, J. J., Weber, J., Robertson, E. R., Sokol-Hessner, P., Ray, R. D., … Ochsner, K. N. (2012). The development of emotion regulation: An fMRI study of cognitive reappraisal in children, adolescents and young adults. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7, 11–22. doi:10.1093/scan/nsr093Google Scholar
Messman-Moore, T. L., & Bhuptani, P. H. (2017). A review of the long-term impact of child maltreatment on posttraumatic stress disorder and its comorbidities: An emotion dysregulation perspective. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 24, 154–169. doi:10.1111/cpsp.12193Google Scholar
Michl, L. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Shepherd, K., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2013). Rumination as a mechanism linking stressful life events to symptoms of depression and anxiety: Longitudinal evidence in early adolescents and adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1222, 339–352. doi:10.1037/a0031994Google Scholar
Miller, L. E. (2015). Perceived threat in childhood: A review of research and implications for children living in violent households. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 16, 153–168. doi:10.1177/1524838013517563Google Scholar
Morales, S., Fu, X., & Pérez-Edgar, K. E. (2016). A developmental neuroscience perspective on affect-biased attention. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 21, 26–41. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2016.08.001Google Scholar
Murray, A. L., Eisner, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2016). The development of the general factor of psychopathology “p factor„ through childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44, 1573–1586. doi:10.1007/s10802-016-0132-1Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2012). Mplus user's guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Neumann, A., Pappa, I., Lahey, B. B., Verhulst, F. C., Medina-Gomez, C., Jaddoe, V. W., … Tiemeier, H. (2016). Single nucleotide polymorphism heritability of a general psychopathology factor in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 55, 1038–1045. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.09.498Google Scholar
Nock, M. K., Wedig, M. M., Holmberg, E. B., & Hooley, J. M. (2008). The Emotion Reactivity Scale: Development, evaluation, and relation to self-injurious thoughts and behaviors. Behavior Therapy, 39, 107–116.Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Aldao, A. (2011). Gender and age differences in emotion regulation strategies and their relationship to depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 704–708. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.012Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 115–121. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.1.115Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Stice, E., Wade, E., & Bohon, C. (2007). Reciprocal relations between rumination and bulimic, substance abuse, and depressive symptoms in female adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 198–207. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.116.1.198Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 400–424. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.xGoogle Scholar
Olino, T. M., Dougherty, L. R., Bufferd, S. J., Carlson, G. A., & Klein, D. N. (2014). Testing models of psychopathology in preschool-aged children using a structured interview-based assessment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1201–1211. doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9865-xGoogle Scholar
O'Mahen, H. A., Karl, A., Moberly, N., & Fedock, G. (2015). The association between childhood maltreatment and emotion regulation: Two different mechanisms contributing to depression? Journal of Affective Disorders, 174, 287–295. doi:10.1016/J.JAD.2014.11.028Google Scholar
Patalay, P., Fonagy, P., Deighton, J., Belsky, J., Vostanis, P., & Wolpert, M. (2015). A general psychopathology factor in early adolescence. British Journal of Psychiatry, 207, 15–22. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.149591Google Scholar
Peh, C. X., Shahwan, S., Fauziana, R., Mahesh, M. V., Sambasivam, R., Zhang, Y., … Subramaniam, M. (2017). Emotion dysregulation as a mechanism linking child maltreatment exposure and self-harm behaviors in adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 67, 383–390. doi:10.1016/J.CHIABU.2017.03.013Google Scholar
Pérez-Edgar, K., Bar-Haim, Y., McDermott, J. M., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2010). Attention biases to threat and behavioral inhibition in early childhood shape adolescent social withdrawal. Emotion, 10, 349–357. doi:10.1037/a0018486Google Scholar
Pine, D. S., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Montgomery, L. A., Monk, C. S., McClure, E., … Kaufman, J. (2005). Attention bias to threat in maltreated children: Implications for vulnerability to stress-related psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 291–298. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.2.291Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D. (2003). Experience-dependent affective learning and risk for psychopathology in children. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1008, 102–111. doi:10.1196/annals.1301.011Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Hornung, K., & Reed, A. (2000). Recognizing emotion in faces: Developmental effects of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Psychology, 36, 679–688. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.5.679Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., & Kistler, D. J. (2002). Early experience is associated with the development of categorical representations for facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, 9072–9076. doi:10.1073/pnas.142165999Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., & Sinha, P. (2002). Effects of early experience on children's recognition of facial displays of emotion. Developmental Psychology, 38, 784–791. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.5.784Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., & Tolley-Schell, S. A. (2003). Selective attention to facial emotion in physically abused children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 323–338. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.112.3.323Google Scholar
Raviv, A., Erel, O., Fox, N. A., Leavitt, L. A., Raviv, A., Dar, I., … Greenbaum, C. W. (2001). Individual measurement of exposure to everyday violence among elementary schoolchildren across various settings. Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 117–140. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(200103)29:2<117::AID-JCOP1009>3.0.CO;2-23.0.CO;2-2>Google Scholar
Raviv, A., Raviv, A., Shimoni, H., Fox, N. A., & Leavitt, L. A. (1999). Children's self-report of exposure to violence and its relation to emotional distress. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 20, 337–353. doi:10.1016/S0193-3973(99)00020-9Google Scholar
R Core Team. (2018). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org/Google Scholar
Reinholdt-Dunne, M. L., Mogg, K., Esbjorn, B. H., & Bradley, B. P. (2012). Effects of age and anxiety on processing threat cues in healthy children. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 3, 30–41. doi:10.5127/jep.019611Google Scholar
Schaefer, J. D., Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Danese, A., Fisher, H. L., Houts, R., … Caspi, A. (2018). Adolescent victimization and early-adult psychopathology: Approaching causal inference using a longitudinal twin study to rule out noncausal explanations. Clinical Psychological Science, 6, 352–371. doi:10.1177/2167702617741381Google Scholar
Shackman, J. E., Shackman, A. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2007). Physical abuse amplifies attention to threat and increases anxiety in children. Emotion, 7, 838–852. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.4.838Google Scholar
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1997). Emotion regulation among school-age children: The development and validation of a new criterion Q-sort scale. Developmental Psychology, 33, 906–916. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.6.906Google Scholar
Shulman, E. P., Smith, A. R., Silva, K., Icenogle, G., Duell, N., Chein, J., & Steinberg, L. (2016). The dual systems model: Review, reappraisal, and reaffirmation. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 17, 103–117. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.12.010Google Scholar
Silvers, J. A., Insel, C., Powers, A., Franz, P., Helion, C., Martin, R. E., … Ochsner, K. N. (2017a). VlPFC-vmPFC-amygdala interactions underlie age-related differences in cognitive regulation of emotion. Cerebral Cortex, 27, 3502–3514. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhw073Google Scholar
Silvers, J. A., Insel, C., Powers, A., Franz, P., Helion, C., Martin, R. E., … Ochsner, K. N. (2017b). The transition from childhood to adolescence is marked by a general decrease in amygdala reactivity and an affect-specific ventral-to-dorsal shift in medial prefrontal recruitment. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 25, 128–137. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2016.06.005Google Scholar
Silvers, J. A., McRae, K., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Gross, J. J., Remy, K. A., & Ochsner, K. N. (2012). Age-related differences in emotional reactivity, regulation, and rejection sensitivity in adolescence. Emotion, 12, 1235–1247. doi:10.1037/a0028297Google Scholar
Snyder, H. R., & Hankin, B. L. (2017). All models are wrong, but the p factor modelis useful: Reply to Widiger and Oltmanns (2017) and Bonifay, Lane, and Reise (2017). Clinical Psychological Science, 5, 187–189. doi:10.1177/2167702616659389Google Scholar
Snyder, H. R., Young, J. F., & Hankin, B. L. (2017). Strong homotypic continuity in common psychopathology-, internalizing-, and externalizing-specific factors over yime in adolescents. Clinical Psychological Science, 5, 98–110. doi:10.1177/2167702616651076Google Scholar
Somerville, L. H., Jones, R. M., & Casey, B. J. (2010). A time of change: Behavioral and neural correlates of adolescent sensitivity to appetitive and aversive environmental cues. Brain and Cognition, 72, 124–133. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.07.003Google Scholar
Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M. J., Decker, K. B., & Pynoos, R. S. (2004). The University of California at Los Angeles Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index. Current Psychiatry Reports, 6. doi:10.1007/s11920-004-0048-2Google Scholar
Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M. J., Kim, S., Briggs, E. C., Ippen, C. G., Ostrowski, S. A., … Pynoos, R. S. (2013). Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD Reaction Index: Part I. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 1–9. doi:10.1002/jts.21780Google Scholar
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the parent-child Conflict Tactics Scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child Abuse and Neglect, 22, 249–270. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00174-9Google Scholar
Stroud, L. R., Foster, E., Papandonatos, G. D., Handwerger, K., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., & Niaura, R. (2009). Stress response and the adolescent transition: Performance versus peer rejection stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 47–68. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000042Google Scholar
Swartz, J. R., Graham-Bermann, S. A., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., & Monk, C. S. (2011). Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 4, 109–122. doi:10.1080/19361521.2011.573525Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 25–52. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01276.xGoogle Scholar
Todd, R. M., Cunningham, W. A., Anderson, A. K., & Thompson, E. (2012). Affect-biased attention as emotion regulation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 365–372. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.06.003Google Scholar
Tottenham, N., Borscheid, A., Ellertsen, K., Marcus, D. J., & Nelson, C. A. (2002). Categorization of facial expressions in children and adults: Establishing a larger stimulus set. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, S74.Google Scholar
Van Buuren, S., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011). mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 45. doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i03Google Scholar
Viding, E., Sebastian, C. L., Dadds, M. R., Lockwood, P. L., Cecil, C. A. M., De Brito, S. A., & McCrory, E. J. (2012). Amygdala response to preattentive masked fear in children with conduct problems: The role of callous-unemotional traits. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 1109–1116. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12020191Google Scholar
Waechter, S., Nelson, A. L., Wright, C., Hyatt, A., & Oakman, J. (2014). Measuring attentional bias to threat: Reliability of dot probe and eye movement indices. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 38, 313–333. doi:10.1007/s10608-013-9588-2Google Scholar
Walker, E. A., Unutzer, J., Rutter, C., Gelfand, A., Saunders, K., VonKorff, M., … Katon, W. (1999). Costs of health care use by women HMO members with a history of childhood abuse and neglect. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 809–813. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.56.7.609Google Scholar
Waters, A. M., Henry, J., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., & Pine, D. S. (2010). Attentional bias towards angry faces in childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 41, 158–164. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.12.001Google Scholar
Webb, T. L., Miles, E., & Sheeran, P. (2012). Dealing with feeling: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 775–808. doi:10.1037/a0027600Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (2011). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence—Second edition (WASI-II). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.Google Scholar
Ziegert, D. I., & Kistner, J. A. (2002). Response styles Theory: Downward extension to children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 325–334. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3103_04Google Scholar