Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-gb8f7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T20:05:01.450Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Developmental trends of hot and cool executive function in school-aged children with and without autism spectrum disorder: Links with theory of mind

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 March 2018

Evangelia-Chrysanthi Kouklari*
Affiliation:
University of Greenwich
Stella Tsermentseli
Affiliation:
University of Greenwich
Claire P. Monks
Affiliation:
University of Greenwich
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Evangelia-Chrysanthi Kouklari, Department of Psychology, Social Work, and Counselling, Bronte Building, University of Greenwich, Avery Hill Road, London, UK SE9 2UG; E-mail: [email protected].

Abstract

The development of executive function (EF) in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been investigated using only “cool”-cognitive EF tasks while there is limited knowledge regarding the development of “hot”-affective EF. Although cool EF development and its links to theory of mind (ToM) have been widely examined, understanding of the influence of hot EF to ToM mechanisms is minimal. The present study introduced a longitudinal design to examine the developmental changes in cool and hot EF of children with ASD (n = 45) and matched (to age and IQ) controls (n = 37) as well as the impact of EF on ToM development over a school year. For children with ASD, although selective cool (working memory and inhibition) and hot (affective decision making) EF domains presented age-related improvements, they never reached the performance level of the control group. Early cool working memory predicted later ToM in both groups but early hot delay discounting predicted later ToM only in the ASD group. No evidence was found for the reverse pattern (early ToM predicting later EF). These findings suggest that improvements in some EF aspects are evident in school age in ASD and highlight the crucial role that both cool and hot EF play in ToM development.

Type
Regular Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

The authors are grateful for the Vice Chancellor Scholarship Funding from the University of Greenwich. The authors would like to acknowledge their gratitude to the participating schools and children. The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

References

Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Alloway, T. P., Gathercole, S. E., Kirkwood, H., & Elliott, J. (2009). The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory. Child Development, 80, 606621. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.xGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Andersen, P. N., Hovik, K. T., Skogli, E. W., Egeland, J., & Oie, M. (2013). Symptoms of ADHD in children with high-functioning autism are related to impaired verbal working memory and verbal delayed recall. PlOS ONE, 8, e64842. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064842Google Scholar
Anderson, P. J. (2008). Towards a developmental model of executive function. In Anderson, V., Jacobs, R., & Anderson, P. J. (Eds.), Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A lifespan perspective (pp. 323). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, V., Anderson, P. J., Jacobs, R., & Spencer-Smith, M. (2008). Development and assessment of executive function: From preschool to adolescence. In Anderson, V., Jacobs, R., & Anderson, P. J. (Eds.), Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A lifespan perspective (pp. 123155). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Apperly, I. A., Samson, D., & Humphreys, G. W. (2009). Studies of adults can inform accounts of theory of mind development. Developmental Psychology, 45, 190201. doi:10.1037/a0014098Google Scholar
Austin, G., Groppe, K., & Elsner, B. (2014). The reciprocal relationship between executive function and theory of mind in middle childhood: A 1-year longitudinal perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 655. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00655Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S. (1991). The development of a theory of mind in autism: Deviance and delay? Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 14, 3351.Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S., O'Riordan, M., Jones, R., Stone, V. E., & Plaisted, K. (1999). A new test of social sensitivity: Detection of faux pas in normal children and children with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29, 407418.Google Scholar
Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Scahill, V., Lawson, J., & Spong, A. (2001). Are intuitive physics and intuitive psychology independent? A test with children with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Developmental and Learning Disorders, 5, 4778.Google Scholar
Bechara, A., Damasio, A. R., Damasio, H., & Anderson, S. W. (1994). Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to prefrontal cortex. Cognition, 50, 715. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90018-3Google Scholar
Begeer, S., Bernstein, D. M., van Wijhe, J., Scheeren, A. M., & Koot, H. M. (2012). A continuous false belief task reveals egocentric biases in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 16, 357366. doi:10.1177/1362361311434545Google Scholar
Bernstein, D. M., Thornton, W. L., & Sommerville, J. A. (2011). Theory of mind through the ages: Older and middle-aged adults exhibit more errors than do younger adults on a continuous false-belief task. Experimental Aging Research, 37, 481502. doi:10.1080/0361073X.2011.619466Google Scholar
Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81, 16411660. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.xGoogle Scholar
Bock, A. M., Gallaway, K. C., & Hund, A. M. (2015). Specifying links between executive functioning and theory of mind during middle childhood: Cognitive flexibility predicts social understanding. Journal of Cognition and Development, 16, 509521. doi:10.1080/15248372.2014.888350Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M., Claxton, L. J., & Moses, L. J. (2013). The relation between executive function and theory of mind is more than skin deep. Journal of Cognition and Development, 16, 186197. doi:10.1080/15248372.2013.824883Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M., Mandell, D. J., & Williams, J. L. (2004). Executive function and theory of mind: Stability and prediction from ages 2 to 3. Developmental Psychology, 40, 11051122. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1105Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children's theory of mind. Child Development, 72, 10321053. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00333Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Breton, C. (2002). How specific is the relation between executive function and theory of mind? Contributions of inhibitory control and working memory. Infant and Child Development, 11, 7392. doi:10.1002/icd.298Google Scholar
Chan, R. C., Shum, D., Toulopoulou, T., & Chen, E. Y. (2008). Assessment of executive functions: Review of instruments and identification of critical issues. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 23, 201216. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2007.08.010Google Scholar
Chen, S. F., Chien, Y. L., Wu, C. T., Shang, C. Y., Wu, Y. Y., & Gau, S. S. (2016). Deficits in executive functions among youths with autism spectrum disorders: An age-stratified analysis. Psychological Medicine, 46, 16251638. doi:10.1017/S0033291715002238Google Scholar
Christ, S. E., Holt, D. D., White, D. A., & Green, L. (2007). Inhibitory control in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 11551165. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0259-yGoogle Scholar
Craig, F., Margari, F., Legrottaglie, A. R., Palumbi, R., de Giambattista, C., & Margari, L. (2016). A review of executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 12, 11911202. doi:10.2147/NDT.S104620Google Scholar
Davis, H. L., & Pratt, C. (1995). The development of children's theory of mind: The working memory explanation. Australian Journal of Psychology, 47, 2531.Google Scholar
Del Giudice, M. (2014). Middle childhood: An evolutionary-developmental synthesis. Child Development Perspectives, 8, 193200. doi:10.1111/cdep.12084Google Scholar
Demetriou, E. A., Lampit, A., Quintana, D. S., Naismith, S. L., Song, Y. J. C., Pye, J. E., … Guastella, A. J. (2017). Autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis of executive function. Molecular Psychiatry. Advance online publication. doi:10.1038/mp.2017.75Google Scholar
Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. (2013). Silent films and strange stories: Theory of mind, gender and social experiences in middle childhood. Child Development, 84, 9891003. doi:10.1111/cdev.12017Google Scholar
Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. (2014). Relations between false belief understanding and executive function in early childhood: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 85, 17771794. doi:10.1111/cdev.12237Google Scholar
Devine, R. T., White, N., Ensor, R., & Hughes, C. (2016). Theory of mind in middle childhood: Longitudinal associations with executive function and social competence. Developmental Psychology, 52, 758771. doi:10.1037/dev0000105Google Scholar
Dumontheil, I., Apperly, I. A., & Blakemore, S. J. (2010). Online usage of theory of mind continues to develop in late adolescence. Developmental Science, 13, 331338. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00888.xGoogle Scholar
Elliott, R. (2003). Executive functions and their disorders: Imaging in clinical neuroscience. British Medical Bulletin, 65, 4959. doi:10.1093/bmb/65.1.49Google Scholar
Flynn, E. (2007). The role of inhibitory control in false belief understanding. Infant and Child Development, 16, 5369. doi:10.1002/icd.500Google Scholar
Geurts, H. M., de Vries, M., & van den Bergh, S. F. (2014). Executive functioning theory and autism. In Goldstein, S. & Naglier, J. (Eds.), Handbook of executive functioning (pp. 121141). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Kenworthy, L., & Barton, R. M. (2002). Profiles of everyday executive function in acquired and developmental disorders. Child Neuropsychology, 8, 121137. doi:10.1076/chin.8.2.121.8727Google Scholar
Goldman, A. I. (2012). Theory of mind. In Margolis, E., Samuels, R., & Stich, S. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of philosophy of cognitive science (pp. 402424). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gordon, A. C., & Olson, D. R. (1998). The relation between acquisition of a theory of mind and the capacity to hold in mind. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 68, 7083. doi:10.1006/jecp.1997.2423Google Scholar
Griffith, E. M., Pennington, B. F., Wehner, E. A., & Rogers, S. J. (1999). Executive functions in young children with autism. Child Development, 70, 817832. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00059Google Scholar
Gur, R. C., Richard, J., Calkins, M. E., Chiavacci, R., Hansen, J. A, Bilker, W. B., … Gur, R. E. (2012). Age group and sex differences in performance on a computerized neurocognitive battery in children age 8–21. Neuropsychology, 26, 251265. doi:10.1037/a0026712Google Scholar
Happé, F. G. (1994). An advanced test of theory of mind: Understanding of story characters' thoughts and feelings by able autistic, mentally handicapped, and normal children and adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24, 129154. doi:10.1007/BF02172093Google Scholar
Happé, F., Booth, R., Charlton, R., & Hughes, C. (2006). Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Examining profiles across domains and ages. Brain and Cognition, 61, 2539. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2006.03.004Google Scholar
Happé, F., Ronald, A., & Plomin, R. (2006). Time to give up on a single explanation of autism. Nature Neuroscience, 9, 12181220. doi:10.1038/nn1770Google Scholar
Hill, E. L. (2004). Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism. Developmental Review, 24, 189233. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2004.01.001Google Scholar
Hongwanishkul, D., Happaney, K. R., Lee, W. S., & Zelazo, P. D. (2005). Assessment of hot and cool executive function in young children: Age-related changes and individual differences. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 617644. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2802_4Google Scholar
Hooper, C. J., Luciana, M., Conklin, H. M., & Yarger, R. S. (2004). Adolescents’ performance on the Iowa Gambling Task: Implications for the development of decision-making and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Developmental Psychology, 40, 11481158. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.1148Google Scholar
Hughes, C. (1998). Executive function in preschoolers: Links with theory of mind and verbal ability. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 16, 233253. doi:10.1111/j.2044-835X.1998.tb00921.xGoogle Scholar
Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2007). Executive function and theory of mind: Predictive relations from ages 2 to 4. Developmental Psychology, 43, 14471459. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1447Google Scholar
Im-Bolter, N., Agostino, A., & Owens-Jaffray, K. (2016). Theory of mind in middle childhood and early adolescence: Different from before? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 149, 98115. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.12.006Google Scholar
Keenan, T., Olson, D. R., & Marini, Z. (1998). Working memory and children's developing understanding of mind. Australian Journal of Psychology, 50, 7682. doi:10.1080/00049539808257537Google Scholar
Kercood, S., Grskovic, J. A., Banda, D., & Begeske, J. (2014). Working memory and autism: A review of literature. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8, 13161332. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2014.06.011Google Scholar
Kim, S., Nordling, J. K., Yoon, J. E., Boldt, L. J., & Kochanska, G. (2014). Effortful control in “hot” and “cool” tasks differentially predicts children's behaviour problems and academic performance. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 4356. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9661-4Google Scholar
Kimhi, Y., Kugelmas, D., Agam Ben Artzi, G., Ben Moshe, I., & Bauminger-Zviely, N. (2014). Theory of mind and executive function in preschoolers with typical development versus intellectually able pre-schoolers with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, 23412354. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2104-zGoogle Scholar
Kouklari, E. C., Thompson, T., Monks, C. P., & Tsermentseli, S. (2017). Hot and cool executive function and its relation to theory of mind in children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Cognition and Development. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/15248372.2017.1339708Google Scholar
Lantz, J. (2002). Theory of mind in autism: Development, implications, and interventions. Reporter, 7, 1825.Google Scholar
Le Couteur, A., Rutter, M., Lord, C., Rios, P., Robertson, S., Holdgrafer, M., & McLennan, J. D. (1989). Autism Diagnostic Interview: A standardized investigator-based instrument. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 19, 363387. doi:10.1007/BF02212936Google Scholar
Leung, R. C., Vogan, V. M., Powell, T. L., Anagnostou, E., & Taylor, M. J. (2016). The role of executive functions in social impairment in autism spectrum disorder. Child Neuropsychology, 22, 336344. doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1005066Google Scholar
Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. C., & Risi, S. (2000). Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism Diagnostic Interview—Revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24, 659685. doi:10.1007/BF02172145Google Scholar
Luna, B., Doll, S. K., Hegedus, S. J., Minshew, N. J., & Sweeney, J. A. (2007). Maturation of executive function in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 474481. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.02.030Google Scholar
Marcovitch, S., O'Brien, M., Calkins, S. D., Leerkes, E. M., Weaver, J. M., & Levine, D. W. (2014). A longitudinal assessment of the relation between executive function and theory of mind at 3, 4, and 5 years. Cognitive Development, 33, 4055. doi.10.1016/j.cogdev.2014.07.001Google Scholar
McAlister, A. R., & Peterson, C. C. (2013). Siblings, theory of mind, and executive functioning in children aged 3–6 years: New longitudinal evidence. Child Development, 84, 14421458. doi:10.1111/cdev.12043Google Scholar
McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science, 306, 503507. doi:10.1126/science.1100907Google Scholar
McDonald, S. (2013). Impairments in social cognition following severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 19, 231246. doi:10.1017/S1355617712001506Google Scholar
Monks, C. P., Smith, P. K., & Swettenham, J. (2005). Psychological correlates of peer victimisation in preschool: Social cognitive skills, executive function and attachment profiles. Aggressive Behavior, 31, 571588. doi:10.1002/ab.20099Google Scholar
Mueller, S. T., & Piper, B. J. (2014). The psychology experiment building language (PEBL) and PEBL test battery. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 222, 250259. doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2013.10.024Google Scholar
Myerson, J., Green, L., & Warusawitharana, M. (2001). Area under the curve as a measure of discounting. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, 76, 235243. doi:10.1901/jeab.2001.76-235Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2011). Autism: recognition, referral and diagnosis of children and young people on the autism spectrum (Clinical guideline 128). London: RCOG Press.Google Scholar
Otero, T. M., & Barker, L. A. (2014). The frontal lobes and executive functioning. In Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, J. A. (Eds.), Handbook of executive functioning (pp. 2945). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Ozonoff, S., & McEvoy, R. E. (1994). A longitudinal study of executive function and theory of mind development in autism. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 415431. doi:10.1017/S0954579400006027Google Scholar
Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1991). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 10811105. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1991.tb00351.xGoogle Scholar
Pellicano, E. (2007). Links between theory of mind and executive function in young children with autism: Clues to developmental primacy. Developmental Psychology, 43, 974990. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.974Google Scholar
Pellicano, E. (2010). Individual differences in executive function and central coherence predict developmental changes in theory of mind in autism. Developmental Psychology, 46, 530544. doi:10.1037/a0018287Google Scholar
Pellicano, E. (2012). The development of executive function in autism. Autism Research and Treatment, 2012, 146132. doi:10.1155/2012/146132Google Scholar
Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 37, 5187. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1996.tb01380.xGoogle Scholar
Perneger, T. V. (1998). What's wrong with Bonferroni adjustments. British Medical Journal, 316, 12361238.Google Scholar
Perner, J. (1998). The meta-intentional nature of executive functions and theory of mind. In Carruthers, P. & Boucher, J. (Eds.), Language and thought (pp. 270283). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Perner, J., & Lang, B. (1999). Development of theory of mind and executive control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3, 337344. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01362-5Google Scholar
Perner, J., & Wimmer, H. (1985). “John thinks that Mary thinks that …” attribution of second-order beliefs by 5- to 10-year-old children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 39, 437471. doi:10.1016/0022-0965(85)90051-7Google Scholar
Peterson, C. C., Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2005). Steps in theory of mind development for children with autism, deafness or typical development. Child Development, 76, 502517. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00859.xGoogle Scholar
Prencipe, A., Kesek, A., Cohen, J., Lamm, C., Lewis, M. D., & Zelazo, P. D. (2011). Development of hot and cool executive function during the transition to adolescence. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108, 621637. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.09.008Google Scholar
Poland, S. E., Monks, C. P., & Tsermentseli, S. (2015). Cool and hot executive function as predictors of aggression in early childhood: Differentiating between the function and form of aggression. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 34, 181197. doi:10.1111/bjdp.12122Google Scholar
Richards, J. B., Zhang, L., Mitchell, S. H., & Wit, H. (1999). Delay or probability discounting in a model of impulsive behavior: Effect of alcohol. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, 71, 121143. doi:10.1901/jeab.1999.71-121Google Scholar
Robinson, O. C., Dunn, A., Nartova-Bochaver, S., Bochaver, K., Asadi, S., Khosravi, Z., … Yang, Y. (2016). Figures of admiration in emerging adulthood: A four-country study. Emerging Adulthood, 4, 8291. doi:10.1177/2167696815601945Google Scholar
Russell, J. (1996). Agency: Its role in mental development. Hove: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Russell, J. (1997). How executive disorders can bring about an adequate theory of mind. In Russell, J. (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 256304). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Russo, N., Flanagan, T., Iarocci, G., Berringer, D., Zelazo, P. D., & Burack, J. A. (2007). Deconstructing executive deficits among persons with autism: Implications for cognitive neuroscience. Brain and Cognition, 65, 7786. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2006.04.007Google Scholar
Sabbagh, M. A., Bowman, L. C., Evraire, L. E., & Ito, J. M. B. (2009). Neurodevelopmental correlates of theory of mind in preschool children. Child Development, 80, 11471162. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01322.xGoogle Scholar
Sabbagh, M. A., Xu, F., Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Lee, K. (2006). The development of executive functioning and theory of mind: A comparison of Chinese and US preschoolers. Psychological Science, 17, 7481. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01667.xGoogle Scholar
Scheres, A., Dijkstra, M., Ainslie, E., Balkan, J., Reynolds, B., Sonuga-Barke, E., & Castellanos, F. X. (2006). Temporal and probabilistic discounting of rewards in children and adolescents: Effects of age and ADHD symptoms. Neuropsychologia, 44, 20922103. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.10.012Google Scholar
Scheres, A., Milham, M. P., Knutson, B., & Castellanos, F. X. (2007). Ventral striatal hyporesponsiveness during reward anticipation in attention-deficit⁄hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 720724. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.04.042Google Scholar
Scheres, A., Tontsch, C., Thoeny, A. L., & Sumiya, M. (2014). Temporal reward discounting in children, adolescents, and emerging adults during an experiential task. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 711. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00711Google Scholar
Schug, J., Takagishi, H., Benech, C., & Okada, H. (2016). The development of theory of mind and positive and negative reciprocity in preschool children. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00888Google Scholar
Segalowitz, S., & Davies, P. L. (2004). Charting the maturation of the frontal lobe: An electrophysiological strategy. Brain and Cognition, 55, 116133. doi:10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00283-5Google Scholar
Serra, M., Loth, F. L., van Geert, P. L. C., Hurkens, E., & Minderaa, R. B. (2002). Theory of mind in children with “lesser variants” of autism: A longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 885900. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00104Google Scholar
Shallice, T. (1982). Specific impairments of planning. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B, 298, 199209.Google Scholar
Siegel, D. (2013). Brainstorm: The power and purpose of the teenage brain. New York: Jeremy Tarcher/Penguin.Google Scholar
Sinzig, J., Morsch, D., Bruning, N., Schmidt, M. H., & Lehmkuhl, G. (2008). Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 2. doi:10.1186/1753-2000-2-4Google Scholar
South, M., Ozonoff, S., & McMahon, W. M. (2007). The relationship between executive functioning, central coherence, and repetitive behaviors in the high functioning autism spectrum. Autism, 11, 437451. doi:10.1177/1362361307079606Google Scholar
Steele, S., Joseph, R. M., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2003). Developmental change in theory of mind abilities in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33, 461467. doi:10.1023/A:1025075115100Google Scholar
Steinberg, L., Graham, S., O'Brien, L., Woolard, J., Cauffman, E., & Banich, M. (2009). Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting. Child Development, 80, 2844. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01244.xGoogle Scholar
Stolarski, M., Bitner, J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2011). Time perspective, emotional intelligence and discounting of delayed awards. Time and Society, 20, 346363. doi:10.1177/0961463X11414296Google Scholar
Ströhle, A., Stoy, M., Wrase, J., Schwarzer, S., Schlagenhauf, F., Huss, M., … Heinz, A. (2008). Reward anticipation and outcomes in adult males with attention-deficit⁄hyperactivity disorder. NeuroImage, 39, 966972. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.09.044Google Scholar
Tager-Flusberg, H., & Joseph, R. M. (2005). Theory of mind, language, and executive functions in autism: A longitudinal perspective. In Schneider, W., Schumann-Hengsteler, R., & Sodian, B. (Eds.), Young children's cognitive development: Interrelationships among executive functioning, working memory, verbal ability, and theory of mind (pp. 239258). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Tillman, C., Brocki, K. C., Sørensen, L., & Lundervold, A. J. (2015). A longitudinal examination of the developmental executive function hierarchy in children with externalizing behavior problems. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19, 496506. doi:10.1177/1087054713488439Google Scholar
Vellante, M., Baron-Cohen, S., Melis, M., Marrone, M., Petretto, D. R., Masala, C., & Preti, A. (2013). The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test: Systematic review of psychometric properties and a validation study in Italy. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 18, 326354. doi:10.1080/13546805.2012.721728Google Scholar
Verdejo-García, A., Bechara, A., Recknor, E. C., & Perez-Garcia, M. (2006). Decision-making and the Iowa Gambling Task: Ecological validity in individuals with substance dependence. Psychologica Belgica, 46, 5578. doi:10.5334/pb-46-1-2-55Google Scholar
Verté, S., Geurts, H. M., Roeyers, H., Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (2005). Executive functioning in children with autism and Tourette syndrome. Developmental Psychopathology, 17, 415445. doi:10.1017/S0954579405050200Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1991). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1999). The Wechsler Abbreviated Scale for Intelligence. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Welsh, M., & Peterson, E. (2014). Issues in the conceptualization and assessment of hot executive functions in childhood. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 20, 152156. doi:10.1017/S1355617713001379Google Scholar
Willoughby, M., Kupersmidt, J., Voegler-Lee, M., & Bryant, D. (2011). Contributions of hot and cool self-regulation to preschool disruptive behavior and academic achievement. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36, 162180.Google Scholar
Xiao, T., Xiao, Z., Ke, X., Hong, S., Yang, H., Su, Y., … Liu, Y. (2012). Response inhibition impairment in high functioning autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Evidence from near-infrared spectroscopy data. PlOS ONE, 7, e46569. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046569Google Scholar
Yerys, B. E., Wallace, G. L., Sokoloff, J. L., Shook, D. A., James, J. D., & Kenworthy, L. (2009). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms moderate cognition and behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Research, 2, 322333. doi:10.1002/aur.103Google Scholar
Yeung, M. K., Han, Y. M., Sze, S. L., & Chan, A. S. (2016). Abnormal frontal theta oscillations underlie the cognitive flexibility deficits in children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychology, 30, 281. doi:10.1037/neu0000231Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2012). Hot and cool executive function in childhood and adolescence: Development and plasticity. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 354360. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00246.xGoogle Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2002). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In Goswami, U. (Ed.), Handbook of childhood cognitive development (pp. 445470). Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., Qu, L., & Müller, U. (2005). Hot and cool aspects of executive function: Relations in early development. In Schneider, W., Schumann-Hengsteler, R., & Sodian, B. (Eds.), Young children's cognitive development: Interrelationships among executive functioning, working memory, verbal ability and theory of mind (pp. 7195). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar