Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-03T15:41:56.249Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The development of personality disorders: Perspectives from normal personality development in childhood and adolescence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 July 2009

Rebecca L. Shiner
Rebecca L. Shiner*
Affiliation:
Colgate University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Rebecca L. Shiner, Department of Psychology, Colgate University, 13 Oak Drive, Hamilton, NY 13346; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The developmental pathways leading to personality disorders are poorly understood, but clues to these pathways come from recent research on personality disorders and normal personality development in childhood and adolescence. The first section of this paper reviews recent work on personality disorders in childhood and adolescence, and concludes that personality disorders in adolescence are already prevalent, moderately stable, and impairing. The second section draws on McAdams and Pals' personality model to offer a taxonomy of personality differences that can account for the known patterns of emerging personality pathology. This taxonomy includes youths' temperament and personality traits, mental representations (including attachment), coping strategies, and narrative identities. Individual differences in all of these domains may play critical roles in the development, manifestation, and course of personality disorders. Existing knowledge of normal and abnormal personality development can inform future research on the developmental pathways leading to personality pathology, the diagnostic criteria for personality disorders, and the development of validated treatments for personality disorders in the first two decades of life.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 21 , Issue 3: Precursors and Diverse Pathways to Personality Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Part 1 , August 2009 , pp. 715 - 734
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Beauchaine, T. P. (2003). Taxometrics and developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 501–527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, D. P., Cohen, P., Velez, C. N., Schwab-Stone, M., Siever, L. J., & Shinsato, L. (1993). Prevalence and stability of the DSM-III-R personality disorders in a community-based survey of adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1237–1243.Google Scholar
Blair, R. J., & Viding, E. (2008). Psychopathy. In Rutter, M., Bishop, D., Pine, D., Scott, S., Stevenson, J., Taylor, E., et al. (Eds.), Rutter's child and adolescent psychiatry (5th ed., pp. 852–863). Malden, MA: Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bleiberg, E. (2001). Treating personality disorders in children and adolescents: A relational approach. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Canli, T. (2008). Toward a “molecular psychology” of personality. In John, O. P., Robins, R. W., & Pervin, L. A. (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 311–327). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., & Shiner, R. L. (2006). Personality development. In Damon, W. & Lerner, R. (Series Eds.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 300–365). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., & Shiner, R. L. (2008). Temperament and personality. In Rutter, M., Bishop, D., Pine, D., Scott, S., Stevenson, J., Taylor, E., et al. (Eds.), Rutter's child and adolescent psychiatry (5th ed., pp. 182–198). Malden, MA: Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (1993). Developmental psychopathology: Reactions, reflections, projections. Developmental Review, 13, 471–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2008). A multiple levels-of-analysis perspective on research in development and psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 27–57). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in development. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, L. A. (2005). Temperament as a unifying basis for personality and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 505–521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, L. A. (2007). Assessment and diagnosis of personality disorder: Perennial issues and an emerging reconceptualization. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 227–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, P., & Crawford, T. (2005). Developmental issues. In Oldham, J. M., Skodol, A. E., & Bender, D. S. (Eds.), The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders (pp. 171–185). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Cohen, P., Crawford, T. N., Johnson, J. G., & Kasen, S. (2005). The children in the community study of developmental course of personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 466–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Progress, problems, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 87–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connor-Smith, J. K., Compas, B. E., Wadsworth, M. E., Thomsen, A. H., & Saltzman, H. (2000). Response to stress: Measurement of coping and reactivity in children and adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 976–992.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connor-Smith, J. K., & Flachsbart, C. (2007). Relations between personality and coping: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 1080–1107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cramer, P. (2008). Seven pillars of defense mechanism theory. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 1963–1981.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, T. N., Cohen, P., First, M. B., Skodol, A. E., Johnson, J. G., & Kasen, S. (2008). Comorbid Axis I and Axis II disorders in early adolescence: Outcomes 20 years later. Archives in General Psychiatry, 65, 641–648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, T. N., Shaver, P. R., Cohen, P., Pilkonis, P. A., Gillath, O., & Kasen, S. (2006). Self-reported attachment, interpersonal aggression, and personality disorder in a prospective community sample of adolescents and adults. Journal of Personality Disorders, 20, 331–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crits-Christoph, P., & Barber, J. P. (2004). Empirical research on the treatment of personality disorders. In Magnavita, J. J. (Ed.), Handbook of personality disorders: Theory and practice (pp. 513–527). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Curtis, W. J., & Cicchetti, D. (2007). Emotion and resilience: A multilevel investigation of hemispheric electroencephalogram asymmetry and emotion regulation in maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 811–840.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daley, S. E., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Davila, J., Paley, B., Lindberg, N., et al. (1999). Depression and Axis II symptomatology in an adolescent community sample: Concurrent and longitudinal associations. Journal of Personality Disorders, 13, 47–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Clercq, B., De Fruyt, F., Van Leeuwen, K., & Mervielde, I. (2006). The structure of maladaptive personality traits in childhood: A step toward an integrative developmental perspective for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 639–657.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Clercq, B., De Fruyt, F., & Widiger, T. A. (in press). Integrating a developmental perspective in dimensional models of personality disorders. Clinical Psychology Review.Google Scholar
De Pauw, S. S. W., Mervielde, I., & Van Leeuwen, K. G. (2009). How are traits related to problem behavior in preschool children? Similarities and contrasts between temperament and personality. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 309–325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Young, C. G., & Gray, J. R. (in press). Personality neuroscience: Explaining individual differences in affect, behavior, and cognition. In Corr, P. J. & Matthews, G. (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of personality. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dweck, C. S., & London, B. (2004). The role of mental representation in social development. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 50, 428–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolan-Sewell, R. T., Krueger, R. F., & Shea, M. T. (2001). Co-occurrence with syndrome disorders. In Livesley, W. J. (Ed.), Handbook of personality disorders: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 84–104). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Ehrensaft, M. K., Cohen, P., & Johnson, J. G. (2006). Development of personality disorder symptoms and the risk for partner violence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 474–483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Fivush, R., Haden, C. A., & Reese, E. (2006). Elaborating on elaborations: Role of maternal reminiscing style in cognitive and socioemotional development. Child Development, 77, 1568–1588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fivush, R., Marin, K., Crawford, M., Reynolds, M., & Brewin, C. R. (2007). Children's narratives and well-being. Cognition and Emotion, 21, 1414–1434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fonagy, P., Roth, A., & Higgitt, A. (2005). Psychodynamic psychotherapies: Evidence-based practice and clinical wisdom. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 69, 1–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fraley, R. C., & Shaver, P. R. (2008). Attachment theory and its place in contemporary personality theory and research. In John, O. P., Robins, R. W., & Pervin, L. A. (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 518–541). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Geiger, T., & Crick, N. R. (2001). A developmental psychopathology perspective on vulnerability to personality disorders. In Ingram, R. & Price, J. M. (Eds.), Vulnerability to psychopathology: Risk across the life span. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., & Gipson, P. Y. (2004). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 412–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenberg, L. S., Elliott, R., & Lietaer, G. (2003). Humanistic–existential psychotherapy. In Stricker, G. & Widiger, T. T. (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Vol. 8. Clinical psychology (pp. 301–325). New York: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, A. M., Rijsdjk, F. V., Lau, J. Y. F., Napolitano, M., McGuffin, P., & Eley, T. C. (2007). Genetic and environmental influences on interpersonal cognitions and associations with depressive symptoms in 8-year-old twins. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 762–775.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grilo, C. M., & McGlashan, T. H. (2005). Course and outcome of personality disorders. In Oldham, J. M., Skodol, A. E., & Bender, D. S. (Eds.), The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders (pp. 103–115). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Habermas, T., & de Silveira, C. (2008). The development of global coherence in life narratives across adolescence: Temporal, causal, and thematic aspects. Developmental Psychology, 44, 707–721.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, J. (2008). Disorders of personality. In Rutter, M., Bishop, D., Pine, D., Scott, S., Stevenson, J., Taylor, E., et al. (Eds.), Rutter's child and adolescent psychiatry (5th ed., pp. 841–851). Malden, MA: Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinshaw, S. P. (2008). Developmental psychopathology as a scientific discipline: Relevance to behavioral and emotional disorders of childhood and adolescence. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 3–26). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
John, O. P., Naumann, L. P., & Soto, C. J. (2008). Paradigm shift to the integrative Big Five taxonomy: History, measurement, and conceptual issues. In John, O. P., Robins, R. W., & Pervin, L. A. (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 114–158). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, J. G., Bromley, E., Bornstein, R. F., & Sneed, J. R. (2006). Adolescent personality disorders. In Wolfe, D. A. & Mash, E. J. (Eds.), Behavioral and emotional disorders in children and adolescents: Nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 463–484). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, J. G., Bromley, E., & McGeoch, P. G. (2005). Role of childhood experiences in the development of maladaptive and adaptive personality traits. In Oldham, J. M., Skodol, A. E., & Bender, D. S. (Eds.), The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders (pp. 209–221). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Chen, H., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (2006). Parenting behaviors associated with risk for offspring personality disorder during adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 579–587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Skodol, A. E., Oldham, J. M., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (1999). Personality disorders in adolescence and risk of major mental disorders and suicidality during adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 805–811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Smailes, E., Kasen, S., Oldham, J. M., & Skodol, A. E. (2000). Adolescent personality disorders associated with violence and criminal behavior during adolescence and early adulthood. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1406–1412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, J. G., First, M. B., Cohen, P., Skodol, A. E., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (2005). Adverse outcomes associated with personality disorder not otherwise specified in a community sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1926–1932.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S., Aggen, S. H., Czajkowski, N., Røysamb, E., Tambs, K., Torgersen, S., et al. (2008). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for DSM-IV personality disorders: A multivariate twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 1438–1446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kernberg, P. F., Weiner, A. S., & Bardenstein, K. K. (2000). Personality disorders in children and adolescents. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Krueger, R. F., & Johnson, W. (2008). Behavior genetics and personality: A new look at the integration of nature and nurture. In John, O. P., Robins, R. W., & Pervin, L. A. (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 287–310). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lavan, H., & Johnson, J. G. (2002). The association between Axis I and II psychiatric symptoms and high-risk sexual behavior during adolescence. Journal of Personality Disorders, 16, 73–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leff, S. S., Crick, N. R., Angelucci, J., Haye, K., Jaward, A. F., Grossman, M., et al. (2006). Social cognition in context: Validating a cartoon-based attributional measure for urban girls. Child Development, 77, 1351–1358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leichsenring, R., & Leibling, E. (2003). The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of personality disorders: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1223–1232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., & Klein, D. N. (1997). Axis II psychopathology as a function of Axis I disorders in childhood and adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1752–1759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livesley, W. J. (2007). A framework for integrating dimensional and categorical classifications of personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 199–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lodi-Smith, J. L., & Roberts, B. W. (2007). Social investment and personality: A meta-analytic analysis of the relationship of personality traits to investment in work, family, religion, and volunteerism. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 68–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyuckx, K., Schwartz, S. J., Berzonsky, M. D., Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Smits, I., et al. (2008). Capturing ruminative exploration: Extending the four-dimensional model of identity formation in late adolescence. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 58–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lynam, D. R., & Gudonis, L. (2005). The development of psychopathy. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 381–407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacDonald, K. (1995). Evolution, the five-factor model, and levels of personality. Journal of Personality, 63, 525–567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markon, K. E., Krueger, R. F., & Watson, D. (2005). Delineating the structure of normal and abnormal personality: An integrative hierarchical approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 139–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mattia, J. I., & Zimmerman, M. (2001). Epidemiology. In Livesley, W. J. (Ed.), Handbook of personality disorders: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 107–123). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
McAdams, D. P. (1995). What do we know when we know a person? Journal of Personality, 73, 365–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McAdams, D. P. (2008). Personal narratives and the life story. In John, O. P., Robins, R. W., & Pervin, L. A. (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 242–262). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
McAdams, D. P. (2009). The person: An introduction to the science of personality psychology (5th ed.). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
McAdams, D. P., & Pals, J. L. (2006). A new Big Five: Fundamental principles for an integrative science of personality. American Psychologist, 61, 204–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGlashan, T. H., Grilo, C. M., Sanislow, C. A., Ralevski, E., Morey, L. C., Gunderson, J. G., et al. (2005). Two-year prevalence and stability of individual DSM-IV criteria for schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive–compulsive personality disorders: Toward a hybrid model of axis II disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 883–889.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLean, K. C. (2008). The emergence of narrative identity. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 1685–1702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mervielde, I., De Clercq, B., De Fruyt, F., & van Leeuwen, K. (2005). Temperament, personality, and developmental psychopathology as childhood antecedents of personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 171–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mezulis, A. H., Hyde, J. S., & Abramson, L. Y. (2006). The developmental origins of cognitive vulnerability to depression: Temperament, parenting, and negative life events in childhood as contributors to negative cognitive style. Developmental Psychology, 42, 1012–1025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Molden, D. C., & Dweck, C. S. (2006). Finding “meaning” in psychology: A lay theories approach to self-regulation, social perception, and social development. American Psychologist, 61, 192–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nettle, D. (2006). The evolution of personality variation in humans and other animals. American Psychologist, 61, 622–631.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelson, K., & Fivush, R. (2004). The emergence of autobiographical memory: A social cultural developmental theory. Psychological Review, 111, 486–511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigg, J. T., Silk, K. R., Stavro, G., & Miller, T. (2005). Disinhibition and borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1129–1149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olson, K. R., & Dweck, C. S. (2008). A blueprint for social cognitive development. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 193–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ozer, D. J., & Benet-Martinez, V. (2006). Personality and the prediction of consequential outcomes. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 401–421.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pals, J. L. (2006). Authoring a second chance in life: Emotion and transformational processing within narrative identity. Research in Human Development, 3, 101–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pomerantz, E. M., & Thompson, R. A. (2008). Parents' role in children's personality development: The psychological resource principle. In John, O. P., Robins, R. W., & Pervin, L. A. (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 351–374). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Posner, M. E., Rothbart, M. K., Sheese, B. E., & Tang, Y. (2007). The anterior cingulated gyrus and the mechanism of self-regulation. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 391–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, B. W., & DelVecchio, W. F. (2000). The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 3–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, B. W., Kuncel, N. R., Shiner, R. L., Caspi, A., & Goldberg, L. R. (2007). The power of personality: The comparative validity of personality traits, socioeconomic status, and cognitive ability for predicting important life outcomes. Perspectives in Psychological Science, 2, 313–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 1–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, B. W., Wood, D., & Caspi, A. (2008). The development of personality traits in adulthood. In John, O. P., Robins, R. W., & Pervin, L. A. (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 375–398). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Roisman, G. E., Masten, A. S., Coatsworth, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Salient and emerging developmental tasks in the transition to adulthood. Child Development, 75, 123–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In Damon, W. & Lerner, R. (Series Eds.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 99–166). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., & Burge, D. (1995). Cognitive representations of self-family, and peers in school-age children—Links with social competence and sociometric status. Child Development, 66, 1385–1402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruscio, A. M., & Holohan, D. R. (2006). Applying empirically supported treatments to complex cases: Ethical, empirical, and practical considerations. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 13, 146–162.Google Scholar
Saudino, K. J. (2005). Behavioral genetics and child temperament. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 26, 214–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., & Weisskirch, R. S. (2008). Broadening the study of the self-Integrating the study of personal identity and cultural identity. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 635–651.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shiner, R. L. (2000). Linking childhood personality with adaptation: Evidence for continuity and change across time into late adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 310–325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shiner, R. L. (2007). Personality disorders. In Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.), Assessment of childhood disorders (4th ed., pp. 781–816). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Shiner, R. L. (in press). Mapping the landscape of personality in childhood and adolescence. Social Psychology and Personality Psychology Compass.Google Scholar
Shiner, R. L., & DeYoung, C. G. (in press). Personality structure in childhood and adolescent. Oxford handbook of developmental psychology.Google Scholar
Shiner, R. L., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (2002). A developmental perspective on personality in emerging adulthood: Childhood antecedents and concurrent adaptation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1165–1177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skinner, E. A., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J.The development of coping. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 199–144.Google Scholar
Skodol, A. E. (2005). Manifestations, clinical diagnosis, and comorbidity. In Oldham, J. M., Skodol, A. E., & Bender, D. S. (Eds.), The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders (pp. 57–87). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Skodol, A. E., Bender, D. S., Pagano, M. E., Shea, M. T., Yen, S., Sanislow, C. A., et al. (2007). Positive childhood experiences: Resilience and recovery from personality disorder in early adulthood. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 68, 1102–1108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., Shea, M. T., McGlashan, T. H., Morey, L. C., Sanislow, C. A., et al. (2005). The Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study (CLPS): Overview and implications. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 487–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skodol, A. E., Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Sneed, J. R., & Crawford, T. N. (2007). Personality disorder and impaired functioning from adolescence to adulthood. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, 415–420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Psychopathology as an outcome of development. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 251–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sroufe, L. A., Carlson, E. A., Levy, A. K., & Egeland, B. (1999). Implications of attachment theory for developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sutin, A. R., & Robins, R. W. (2005). Continuity and correlates of emotions and motives in self-defining memories. Journal of Personality, 73, 793–824.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tackett, J. L., Silberschmidt, A. L., Krueger, R. F., & Sponheim, S. R. (2008). A dimensional model of personality disorder: Incorporating DSM Cluster A characteristics. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 454–459.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torgersen, S. (2005). Epidemiology. In Oldham, J. M., Skodol, A. E., & Bender, D. S. (Eds.), The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders (pp. 129–141). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Trull, T. J., & Durrett, C. A. (2005). Categorical and dimensional models of personality disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 355–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verheul, R., & Widiger, T. A. (2004). A meta-analysis of the prevalence and usage of the personality disorder not otherwise specified (PD-NOS) diagnosis. Journal of Personality Disorders, 18, 309–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westen, D., & Chang, C. (2000). Personality pathology in adolescence: A review. In Esman, A. H., Flaherty, L. T., & Horowitz, H. A. (Eds.), Adolescent psychiatry: Developmental and clinical studies (Vol. 25, pp. 61–100). Mahwah, NJ: Analytic Press.Google Scholar
Westen, D., Nakash, O., Thomas, C., & Bradley, R. (2006). Clinical assessment of attachment patterns and personality disorder in adolescents and adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 1065–1085.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westen, D., Shedler, J., Durrett, C., Glass, S., & Martens, A. (2003). Personality diagnoses in adolescence: DSM-IV Axis II diagnoses and an empirically derived alternative. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 952–966.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widiger, T. A., & Simonsen, E. (2005). Alternative dimensional models of personality disorder: Finding a common ground. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 110–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widiger, T. A., & Trull, T. J. (2007). Plate tectonics in the classification of personality disorder: Shifting to a dimensional model. American Psychologist, 62, 71–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiggins, J. S., & Trobst, K. K. (1999). The fields of interpersonal behavior. In Pervin, L. A. & John, O. P. (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 653–670). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Williams, J. M. G., Barnhofer, T., Crane, C., Herman, D., Raes, F., Watkins, E., et al. (2007). Autobiographical memory specificity and emotional disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 122–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanarini, M. C., & Frankenburg, F. R. (2007). The essential nature of borderline psychopathology. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 518–535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Hennen, J., Reich, B., & Silk, K. R. (2005). The McLean Study of Adult Development (MSAD): Overview and implications of the first six years of prospective follow-up. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 505–523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed