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18  Ibid., 367.

19  Ibid.

20  Kenneth A. Scherzer, The unbounded community: neighborhood life and social structure in New York City, 1830–1875 (Durham and London, 1992), 8–13.

21  Robert Paul MacCaffery, Islands of Deutschtum. German-Americans in Manchester, New Hampshire and Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1870–1942 (New York, 1996); Mesch, ‘Between spatial and social segregation among immigrants’ Clemens Wischermann, ‘Changes in population development, urban structures and living conditions in nineteenth century Hamburg’, in Richard Lawton and Robert Lee eds., Population and society in Western European port-cities c. 1650–1939 (Liverpool, 2002), 289; Andrew Gibb, ‘Industrialization and demographic change: a case study of Glasgow, 1801–1914’, in Lawton and Lee eds., Population and society.

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27  These percentages are not corrected for the under-registration described below.

28  See Lesger, Lucassen and Schrover, ‘Is there life outside the migrant network?’

29  Schrover, Marlou, ‘Living together, working together: concentratieons kampongs German immigrants in the Netherlands in the nineteenth century’, Continuity and Change 18, no. 2 (2003), 263–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30  Marlou Schrover, Een kolonie van Duitsers: groepsvorming onder Duitse immigranten in Utrecht in de negentiende eeuw (Amsterdam, 2002), 95; Schrover, ‘Living together’ Lottum, Jelle van, ‘Nieuwkomers in Nederland in de eerste helft van de negentiende eeuw’, Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis 29 (2003), 256–80Google Scholar, 258.

31  Schrover, Marlou, ‘“Whenever a dozen Germans meet …”: German organisations in the Netherlands in the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 32, no. 5 (2006), 847–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Marlou Schrover, ‘No more than a keg of beer: the coherence of German immigrant communities’, in Leo Lucassen, Jochen Oltmer and David Feldman eds., Paths of integration: migrants in Western Europe (1880–2004) (Amsterdam, 2006), 222–38.

32  Our method is similar to the method Robert Lee used to describe immigrant communities in the German town of Bremen. In the nineteenth century Bremen and Utrecht were more or less the same size. See Lee, Robert, ‘Urban labor markets, in-migration, and demographic growth: Bremen, 1815–1914’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History 30, no. 3 (1999), 437–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33  Jacques van Maarseveen, ‘Tijdens de eeuwwisseling geteld: de methode van onderzoek bij de volkstelling 1899’, in J. G. S. J. van Maarseveen and P. K. Doorn eds., Nederland een eeuw geleden geteld: een terugblik op de samenleving rond 1900 (Amsterdam, 2001), 13.

34  Schrover, Een kolonie van Duitsers, 71–9.

35  Ronald Rommes, Oost, west, Utrecht best? Driehonderd jaar migratie en migranten in de stad Utrecht (begin 16e – begin 19e eeuw) (Amsterdam, 1998); Schrover, Een kolonie van Duitsers; Schrover, ‘Living together’ Van Lottum, ‘Nieuwkomers in Nederland’.

36  See Rommes, Oost, west, Utrecht best?

37  Since Germany did not exist as such in most of the nineteenth century, the borders of the German Empire as it was just before the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine in 1871 have been used. This means that immigrants from Alsace and Lorraine were regarded as French, and immigrants from Schleswig and Holstein as German.

38  Marlou Schrover, ‘Women and long distance trade migration in the nineteenth-century Netherlands’, in Pamela Sharpe ed., Women, gender and labour migration (London, 2001), 85–107; Schrover, Marlou, ‘Immigrant business and niche formation in a historical perspective: the Netherlands in the nineteenth century’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 27 (2001), 295–311CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

39  H. Oberpenning, Migration und Fernhandel im ‘Tödden-System’: Wanderhändler aus dem nördlichen Münsterland im mittleren und nördlichen Europa (Osnabrück, 1996).

40  Annemarie Cottaar and Leo Lucassen ‘Naar de laatste Parijse mode: strohoedenmakers uit het Jekerdal in Nederland 1750–1900’, in Ad Knotter and Willibrord Rutten eds., Studies over de sociaal-economische geschiedenis van Limburg 46 (Maastricht, 2001), 45–82.

41  P. J. Lestrade. ‘Ketellappers, koperslagers en paraplumakers uit Auvergne’, Gens Nostra (1986), 1–4.

42  The letter J was not used because of the risk of confusion with the letter I.

43  Pieter D. 't Hart, Utrecht en de cholera 1832–1910 (Zutphen, 1990), 67.

44  See Carl Denig, Utrecht van het ancien régime tot nieuwe tijd: de bewoning van de Utrechtse binnenstad in haar ruimtelijke structuur, 1793–1891 (Utrecht, 1995).

45  Fong, Erid and Shibuya, Kumiko ‘The spatial separation of the poor in Canadian cities’, Demography 37 (2000), 449–59CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed, 249; Ellis, Mark, Wright, Richard and Parks, Virginia, ‘Work together, live apart? Geographies of racial and ethnic segregation at home and at work’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 94 (2004), 620–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

46  As was true, for instance, for immigrants in Paris in the nineteenth century; see Moch, Leslie Page, ‘Networks among Bretons? The evidence for Paris, 1875–1925’, Continuity and Change 18, no. 3 (2003), 431–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 435.

47  Marlou Schrover, ‘Hidden professions? Female “placers” of domestic servants in nineteenth-century Dutch cities’, in Robert Beachy, Beatrice Craig and Alastair Owens eds., Women, business and finance in nineteenth-century Europe: rethinking separate spheres (Oxford and New York, 2005), 167–81.

48  Schrover, ‘Living together’, 280.

49  Compare for Zalc, Paris Claire, ‘Petits entrepreneurs étrangers en ville: localisations urbaines, réseaux migratoires et solidarités professionnelles dans la Seine pendant l'entre-deux-guerres’, Histoire Urbaine 4 (2001), 67–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

50  See Zecker, ‘Where everybody goes to meet everybody else’.

51  Rainhorn, Judith and Zalc, Claire, ‘Commerce à l'Italienne: immigration et activité professionelle à Paris dans l'entre-deux-guerres’, Le Mouvement Social 191 (2000), 49–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

52  Gail Dubrow and Donna Graves, Sento at Sixth and Main: preserving landmarks of Japanese American heritage (Seattle, 2002).

53  Utrechtsch Provinciaal en Stedelijk Dagblad, 23 April 1866.

54  Schrover, Marlou, ‘“De affaire wordt gecontinueerd door de weduwe”: handelende vrouwen in de negentiende eeuw’, Geld & Goed: Jaarboek voor Vrouwengeschiedenis 17 (1997), 55–74Google Scholar.

55  G. Umbgrove, Neerlands roeping (Arnhem, 1871), 15–16, 42.

56  Justus van Maurik, Toen ik nog jong was (Amsterdam, 1901); L. J. Rogier and N. de Rooy, In vrijheid herboren: Katholiek Nederland 1853–1953 (The Hague, 1953); L. J. Rogier, Schrikbeeld van een staatsgreep in 1853 (Amsterdam, 1959); Schrover, Een kolonie van Duitsers.

57  C. W. Opzoomer, De Bonapartes en het recht van Duitschland ook na Sedan: redevoering ter opening der akademische lessen (Amsterdam, 1871); Anne Doedens, Nederland en de Frans-Duitse oorlog: enige aspecten van de buitenlandse politiek en de binnenlandse verhoudingen van ons land omstreeks het jaar 1870 (Zeist, 1973); W. Bevaart, De Nederlandse defensie (1839–1874) (The Hague, 1993); Pieter De Coninck, Een les uit Pruisen: Nederland en de Kulturkampf, 1870–1880 (Leiden, 1998).

58  J. W. C. van Campen, ‘De Handelsfirma Trip 1820–1890, volgens familieaantekeningen medegedeeld’, Jaarboekje Oud Utrecht (1958), 115–41.

59  Schrover, ‘Living together’, 281.

60  The organisations of Germans have been described at some length in Schrover, ‘“Whenever a dozen Germans meet …”’ Schrover, ‘No more than a keg of beer’ and Schrover, Marlou and Vermeulen, Floris, ‘Immigrant organisators: Introduction’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 3 (2005), 823–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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62  Werner König, DTV-Atlas zur deutschen Sprache: Tafeln und Texte (Munich, 1996), 230.

63  Barbara Henkes, ‘Gedeeld Duits-zijn aan de Maas: gevestigd Deutschtum en Duitse nieuwkomers in de jaren 1900–1940’, in Paul van de Laar, Thimo de Nijs, Johan Okkema and Albert Oosthoek eds., Vier eeuwen migratie: bestemming Rotterdam (Rotterdam, 1998), 218–39.

64  These Confession records are in the Utrecht Archive, Archive of the Martinus Parish, 1848–1938, Register of ‘Passchanten’.

65  Rommes, Oost, west, Utrecht best?

66  Ibid., 196.

67  Philip V. Bohlman, ‘“Still, they were all Germans in town” – music in the multi-religious German-Armerican community’, in Eberhard Reichmann, LaVern J. Rippley and Jörg Nagler eds., Emigration and settlement patterns of German communities in North America (Indianapolis, 1995), 275–93; Herman von der Dunk, Der Deutsche Vormärz und Belgien 1830/48 (Wiesbaden, 1966); Gesa Snell, Deutsche Immigranten in Kopenhagen 1800–1870: eine Minderheit zwischen Akzeptanz und Ablehnung (Münster, 1999).

68  Utrecht Archive, ‘Statuten en formulieren liedertafel Aurora 1881’, ‘Register leden liedertafel Aurora 1854–1865’ and ‘Koninklijke Utrechtse Mannenzangvereniging, archief nr. 734, 71–73’.

69  Compare Panikos Panayi, German immigrants in Britain during the nineteenth century, 1815–1914 (Oxford and Washington, 1995); Stanley Nadel, Little Germany: ethnicity, religion, and class in New York City, 1845–80 (Urbana and Chicago, 1990); McCaffery, Islands of Deutschtum; Snell, Deutsche Immigranten in Kopenhagen.

70  Utrechtsche provinciale en stads almanak voor het jaar 1861 (Utrecht, 1861); Utrecht Provinciaal en Stedelijk Dagblad, 1 January 1875; Utrecht Archive, ‘Register en ledenlijst gymnastiek en schermgezelschap Kallistheneia 1854–59’ Carl Euler, Het universale karakter der Gustaaf-Adrefvereeniging en hare uitbreiding in Nederland (Haarlem, 1854); Delheye, Pascal, ‘Carl Euler (1809–1882): een Duitse turnapologeet in Brussel’, Sportimonium 2 (2001), 25–33Google Scholar.

71  F. L. Meijler, ‘Introduction’, Th. W. Engelmann, professor of physiology, Utrecht (1889–1897): some papers and his bibliography with an introduction by Dr. Frits L. Meijler and a forword (in Dutch) by Dr. Dirk Durrer (Amsterdam, 1984), ix–xv.

72  Schrover, Marlou, ‘Maria en Rocco: gemengde huwelijken en integratie in de negentiende eeuw’, Gaan & Staan: Jaarboek voor Vrouwengeschiedenis 21 (2001), 81–100Google Scholar; Marlou Schrover, ‘“De Duitsche is immers tegenwoordig ook zeer galant voor dames”: huwelijksgedrag van migranten in Nederland in de negentiende eeuw', Bevolking & Gezin (2004), 103–25.

73  The proportion went from 3 per cent in 1829 to just about 2 per cent in 1859; on the Choorstraat and the Lijnstraat it went from 2.2 per cent in 1829 to 3.5 per cent in 1859.

74  D. McAdam, Political process and the development of black insurgency (Chicago, 1982).

75  Ewa Morawska, Insecure prosperity: small-town Jews in industrial America, 1890–1940 (Princeton, 1996); R. Waldinger, Still the promised city? African-Americans and new immigrants in postindustrial New York (Cambridge MA and London, 1996).