¹ League of Nations Economic Committee, Draft Convention on the Treatment of Foreigners, C.174.M53.1928.II. (Geneva: League of Nations, 1928)Google Scholar.

² This was not a zero-sum conflict between national sovereignty and international law but rather a more complex debate over the role of trade norms in the League system. As Glenda Sluga and Guy Fiti Sinclair demonstrate, international laws and institutions helped constitute nation states in the twentieth century, in part by structuring global commerce. See Sluga, Glenda, Internationalism in the Age of Nationalism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Sinclair, Guy Fiti, To Reform the World: International Organizations and the Making of Modern States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³ Kauth, Jasper Theodor, ‘Fremdenrecht und Völkerbund: Das Scheitern der International Conference on the Treatment of Foreigners 1929’, Archiv des Völkerrechts, 56, 2 (2018), 216–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴ Tara Zahra shows that migration became a key tool of nation building in post-imperial Central and Eastern Europe. Governments in this region strove to prevent the emigration of their citizens, while simultaneously discouraging immigration of minorities. Zahra, Tara, The Great Departure: Mass Migration from Eastern Europe and the Making of the Free World (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2016), 105–23Google Scholar.

⁵ Weitz, Eric D., ‘From the Vienna to the Paris System: International Politics and the Entangled Histories of Human Rights, Forced Deportations, and Civilizing Missions’, The American Historical Review, 113, 5 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Smith, Leonard V., Sovereignty at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 102–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Payk, Marcus M. end Pergher, Roberta, eds., Beyond Versailles: Sovereignty, Legitimacy, and the Formation of New Polities after the Great War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶ James, Harold, The End of Globalization: Lessons from the Great Depression (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001), 168–86Google Scholar and Hatton, Timothy J. and Williamson, Jeffrey G., Global Migration and the World Economy: Two Centuries of Policy and Performance (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2005), 153–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ Skran, Claudena, Refugees in Inter-War Europe: The Emergence of a Regime (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mazower, Mark, ‘Minorities and the League of Nations in Interwar Europe’, Daedalus, 126, 2 (1997), 47–63Google Scholar; Fink, Carole, Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 133–294Google Scholar; Gatrell, Peter, The Making of the Modern Refugee (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 17–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Biltoft, Carolyn N., ‘The Meek Shall not Inherit the Earth: Nationalist Economies, Ethnic Minorities, and the League of Nations’, in Kreutzmüller, Christoph, Wildt, Michael and Zimmerman, Moshe, eds., National Economies: Volks-Wirtschaft, Racism and Economy in Europe Between the Wars (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars, 2015), 138–54Google Scholar.

⁸ ‘The Covenant of the League of Nations’, Avalon Project at Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library, available at http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp (last visited 19 Feb. 2019).

⁹ Clavin, Patricia and Wessels, Jens-Wilhelm, ‘Transnationalism and the League of Nations: Understanding the Work of its Economic and Financial Organisation’, Contemporary European History, 14, 4 (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Decorzant, Yann, La Société des Nations et la naissance d'une conception de la regulation économique internationale (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2011), 389–92Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Kauth, ‘Fremdenrecht’, 209–11. On the pervasive influence of bilateral treaties in nineteenth-century international relations, see Keene, Edward, ‘The Treaty-Making Revolution in the Nineteenth Century’, The International History Review, 34, 3 (2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹ The Draft Convention on the Treatment of Foreigners sits at the intersection between two core functions of the League of Nations identified by Susan Pedersen: devising ‘technical’ solutions to ‘transnational problems’, including trade, and managing the sovereignty claims of countries in varying positions of imperial dependence or international tutelage. Pedersen, Susan, ‘Back to the League of Nations’, American Historical Review, 112, 4 (2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pedersen, Susan, The Guardians: The League of Nations and the Crisis of Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 8–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Kauth, ‘Fremdenrecht’, 203.

¹² Manela, Erez, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Gorman, Daniel, The Emergence of International Society in the 1920s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Pedersen, Guardians; Jackson, Simon, ‘Transformative Relief: Imperial Humanitarianism and Mandatory Development in Syria-Lebanon, 1915–1925’, Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development, 8, 2 (2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pedersen, Susan, ‘Empires, States and the League of Nations’, in Sluga, Glenda and Clavin, Patricia, eds., Internationalisms: A Twentieth-Century History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 113–38Google Scholar and Slobodian, Quinn, Globalists: The End of Empire and the Birth of Neoliberalism (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ Niels Petersson, ‘Legal Institutions and the World Economy, 1900–1930’ and d'Alessandro, Michele, ‘Global Economic Governance and the Private Sector’, in Dejung, Christof and Petersson, Niels, eds., The Foundations of Worldwide Economic Integration: Power Institutions and Global Markets, 1850–1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 21–39, 249–70Google Scholar; Bertilorenzi, Marco, ‘Legitimising Cartels: The Joint Roles of the League of Nations and of the International Chamber of Commerce’, in Fellman, Susanna and Shanahan, Martin, eds., Regulating Competition: Cartel Registers in the Twentieth Century World (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016), 30–47Google Scholar; Druelle-Korn, Clotilde, ‘The Great War: Matrix of the International Chamber of Commerce, a Fortunate Business League of Nations’, in Smith, Andrew, Tennent, Kevin D. and Mollan, Simon, eds., The Impact of the First World War on International Business (New York: Routledge, 2017), 103–20Google Scholar; Slobodian, Globalists, 30–42.

¹⁴ Hurrell, Andrew, On Global Order: Power, Values, and the Constitution of International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 95–120CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ While this article focuses on the regulation of international trade networks, José Antonio Sánchez Román and Carolyn Biltoft have shown that the League also created space for debate about principles of economic sovereignty tied to transit, taxation and resource distribution. See Biltoft, Carolyn, ‘The League of Nations and Alternative Economic Perspectives’, in Reinert, Erik S., Ghosh, Jayati and Kattel, Rainer, eds., Elgar Handbook of Alternative Theories of Economic Development (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2018), 270–80Google Scholar and Román, José Antonio Sánchez, ‘From the Tigris to the Amazon: Peripheral Expertise, Impossible Cooperation and Economic Multilateralism at the League of Nations, 1920–1946’, in Jackson, Simon and O'Malley, Alanna, eds., The Institution of International Order: From the League of Nations to the United Nations (Abingdon: Routledge, 2018), 43–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶ Clavin, Patricia, Securing the World Economy: The Reinvention of the League of Nations, 1920–1946 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁷ League of Nations, Report Presented to the Assembly from the Economic and Financial Organisation, A. 59.1922.II (Geneva: League of Nations, 1922), 16Google Scholar; League of Nations Economic, Financial and Transit Department, Commercial Policy in the Interwar Period: International Proposals and National Policies, II. Economic and Financial 1942.II.A.6 (Geneva: League of Nations, 1942), 24–8Google Scholar; Decorzant, La Société des Nations, 393–5; Pinchis, Mona, ‘The Ancestry of “Equitable Treatment” in Trade: Lessons from the League of Nations during the Inter-War Period’, The Journal of Investment and Trade, 15, 1 (2004), 28–9Google Scholar and Fink, Carole, The Genoa Conference: European Diplomacy, 1921–1922 (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 246–51Google Scholar.

¹⁸ For the minutes of the relevant sub-committee of the Genoa Conference, see Archives of the League of Nations (LON), R 1608, dossier 40A/20359.

¹⁹ Minutes, Sub-Committee on the Equitable Treatment of Commerce. Second Session. Fourth Meeting, 5 Sep. 1922, LON, R 307, 10/23134/6105, 4.

²⁰ Minutes, Sub-Committee on the Equitable Treatment of Commerce. Second Session. Sixth Meeting, 6 Sep. 1922, LON, R 307, 10/23134/6105, 3.

²¹ Traitement des ressortissants étrangers et des entreprises étrangères, rapport du Comité Économique, 15 May 1923, Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amts (PA AA), Rechtsabteilung/R 54262 and Rapport du Comité Économique au Conseil, 10 June 1925, PA AA, Rechtsabteilung/R 54262, 4–8.

²² Société des Nations, Actes de la Conférence Économique Internationale tenu à Genève du 4 au 23 Mai 1927, vol. 1, C.356.M.129.1927.II (Geneva: League of Nations, 1927), 11Google Scholar; Clavin, Securing, 42–3.

²³ d'Alessandro, ‘Governance’, 249–70; Slobodian, Globalists, 37–41. See also Ridgeway, George, Merchants of Peace: Twenty Years of Business Diplomacy through the International Chamber of Commerce, 1919–1938 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1938), 227–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Boyce, Robert, The Great Interwar Crisis and the Collapse of Globalization (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 175–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁴ Clavin, Securing, 45.

²⁵ League of Nations Economic, Financial and Transit Department, Commercial Policy in the Interwar Period, 24–46; Boyce, Interwar Crisis, 116; Pinchis, ‘Ancestry’, 40–6; Bertilorenzi, ‘Legitimising’, 30–42; d'Alessandro, ‘Governance’, 263–8 and Petersson, ‘Legal’, 29–36.

²⁶ Quinn Slobodian rightly emphasises the influence of Austrian post-imperial politics on trade liberalisation in the League of Nations and the ICC in the 1920s. He does not, however, address how pan-German nationalism structured visions of multilateral economic order in Vienna, especially in the Vienna chamber of commerce (Slobodian, Globalists, 30–42).

²⁷ On Riedl's engagement with the ICC and the League in the 1920s, see Madeleine Dungy, ‘Peace, Power and Economic Order: International Rivalry and Cooperation in European Trade Politics, 1900–1930’, PhD Thesis, Harvard University, 2017, 285–336.

²⁸ Nautz, Jürgen, ‘Tarifvertragsrecht und “Anschluss”. Das Projekt einer gemeinsamen Tarifrechtsreform in Deutschland und Österreich 1919–1931’, Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, 31 (1991)Google Scholar; Fischer, Peter, ‘Die österreichischen Handelskammern und der Anschluß an Deutschland. Zur Strategie der “Politik der kleinen Mittel” 1925 bis 1934’, in Das Juliabkommen von 1936. Vorgeschichte, Hintergründe und Folgen (Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1977), 299–314Google Scholar.

²⁹ Letter from Deutscher Industrie und Handelstag to Richard Riedl, 31 Dec. 1928, Archiv der Wirtschaftskammer Wien, Nachlass Richard Riedl, E 37456/2. On broader links between bilateral and multilateral cooperation, see Richard Riedl, Denkschrift über die Möglichkeiten einer Erweiterung des österreichischen Wirtschaftsgebietes, Apr. 1926, Österreichisches Staatsarchiv (ÖStA), Allgemeines Verwaltungsarchiv (AVA)/Nachlass Richard Riedl (Nl Riedl)/80 and Gerald Horst Brettner-Messler, ‘Richard Riedl – ein liberaler Imperialist: Biographische Studie zu Handelspolitik und “Mitteleuropa”-Gedanken in Monarchie und Erster Republik’, PhD Thesis, University of Vienna, 1998, 350–62.

³⁰ Riedl, Richard, Collective Treaties Facilitating International Commerce in Europe (Vienna: J.N. Vernay, 1926), 3Google Scholar; Riedl, Richard, Exceptions to the Most-Favoured Nation Treatment (London: PS King & Son, 1931), 17–8Google Scholar.

³¹ Einführungsmemorandum für die Arbeiten des (22er) Zollunions-Ausschusses der Deutsch-Oesterreichischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft, undated, ÖStA, AVA/Nl Riedl/86, 2.

³² Suppan, Arnold, ‘Mitteleuropa Konzeptionen zwischen Restauration und Anschluss’, in Plaschka, Richard G., Haselsteiner, Horst, Suppan, Arnold, Drabek, Anna M. and Zaar, Brigitta, eds., Mitteleuropa Konzeptionen in der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1995), 171–97Google Scholar; Thorpe, Julie, Pan-Germanism and the Austrofascist state, 1933–38 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011), 16–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Hochman, Erin, Imagining a Greater Germany: Republican Nationalism and the Idea of Anschluss (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³³ Richard Riedl, Denkschrift über die Möglichkeiten einer Erweiterung des österreichischen Wirtschaftsgebietes, Apr. 1926, ÖStA, AVA, Nl Riedl/80; Richard Riedl, Einführungsmemorandum für die Arbeiten des (22er) Zollunions-Ausschusses der Deutsch-Oesterreichischen Arbeitsgemeinschaft, undated, ÖStA, AVA/Nl Riedl/86.

³⁴ Letter from Maurice Beaumarchais to Aristide Briand, 8 July 1926, Archives diplomatiques du Ministère des Affaires Étrangères (AMAE), Société des Nations (SDN)/1197, 27–8. The French ministry of foreign affairs engaged with many pan-European leaders suspected of pro-Anschluss leanings in order to try to bring them in line with French security interests. See Boyce, Interwar Crisis, 173–4.

³⁵ Riedl, Richard, Collective Treaties Facilitating International Commerce in Europe (Vienna: J.N. Vernay, 1926)Google Scholar. This is an abridged version Riedl's above-cited Denkschrift über die Möglichkeiten einer Erweiterung des österreichischen Wirtschaftsgebietes, stripped of its overt references to pan-German unity.

³⁶ Letter from Pietro Stoppani to Édouard Dolléans, 1 July 1926, LON, R 529 10C/51057/46431.

³⁷ Meeting summary, Chambre de Commerce Internationale, Commission des Entraves au Commerce, Première Session de la Commission Générale, 23–24 Feb. 1927, ÖStA, AVA/Nl Riedl/134.

³⁸ Report of the Trade Barriers Committee presented to the Preparatory Committee of the Economic Conference of the League of Nations (Paris: International Chamber of Commerce, 1926), 14–7Google Scholar and Société des Nations, Actes de la Conférence Économique Internationale tenue à Genève du 4 au 23 Mai 1927, Vol. 2, C.356.M.129 (Geneva: League of Nations, 1927), 24–5Google Scholar.

³⁹ Letter from Pietro Stoppani to Richard Riedl, 20 Oct. 1927, LON, R 405, 10/60780/29200 and Letter from Charles Smets to Richard Riedl, 1 Dec. 1927, ÖStA, AVA/Nl Riedl/115.

⁴⁰ Clavin, Patricia, ‘The Austrian Hunger Crisis and the Genesis of International Organization after the First World War’, International Affairs, 90, 2 (2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴¹ Untitled report on a meeting of local British, French, Italian and US commercial attachés with the president of the Vienna chamber of commerce, 21 Dec. 1922, LON, C 40, 7/3 and report from the Vienna chamber of commerce, Crise économique et finances publiques, 23 Aug. 1924, LON, C 41, 7/14.

⁴² Pietro Stoppani, Notes Pour Sir Arthur Salter, 19 Mar. 1925, AMAE, Papiers d'Agent, Joseph Avenol/19, 92.

⁴³ Hörtlehner, Alexander, ‘Ludwig von Mises und die österreichische Handelskammerorganisation’, Wirtschaftspolitische Blätter, 28, 4 (1981), 140–6Google Scholar and Slobodian, Globalists, 48–9, 66.

⁴⁴ Clavin, Securing, 25–33; Marcus, Nathan, Austrian Reconstruction and the Collapse of Global Finance, 1921–1931 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2018), 143–228CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁵ Layton, Walter and Rist, Charles, The Economic Situation of Austria, Report Presented to the Council of the League of Nations, C.440(1).M162(1).1925.11 (Geneva: League of Nations, 1925), 31Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ ‘Gegen die Besteuerung der österreichischen Geschäftsreisenden in Polen’, Der Reisende Kaufmann, 1 May 1928, 3; ‘Die ungarischen handelskammern gegen die österreichischen Reisenden’, Der Reisende Kaufmann, 1 Aug. 1928, 1–2 and Meyer, Christian, Exportförderungspolitik in Österreich (Vienna: Böhlau, 1991), 94–5, 133Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ The League economic committee first attempted to address registration issues by establishing unified procedures related to commercial travelers’ identity cards and samples in its 1923 Convention on the Simplification of Customs Formalities. The Draft Convention on the Treatment of Foreigners proposed to extend these 1923 provisions to address a wider range of registration requirements. See League of Nations, International Convention Relating to the Simplification of Customs Formalities, C.678.M.241.1924.II (Geneva: League of Nations, 1924), 6–7Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ League of Nations, Draft Convention.

⁴⁹ Quinn Slobodian notes that there were conflicting opinions within the Vienna chamber of commerce concerning migration. Some of the chamber's leaders insisted that free trade and free migration were inseparably linked. Others argued that people need not move if goods and capital could move freely, supporting a global regime of free markets and closed borders built around nation states. Riedl's Draft Convention occupies an intermediary position between these views. See Slobodian, Globalists, 43, 50, 53–4.

⁵⁰ Article 23, League of Nations, Draft Convention, 13.

⁵¹ Telegram from Diplomatie to Clauzel, 17 Nov. 1926, AMAE, SDN/1379, 68; Lewis, Mary Dewhurst, Boundaries of the Republic: Migrant Rights and the Limits of Universalism in France, 1918–1940 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007), 17–53Google Scholar; Lewis, Mary Dewhurst, Divided Rule: Sovereignty and Empire in French Tunisia, 1881–1938 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013), 98–130CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵² Wandycz, Piotr, The Twilight of French Eastern Alliances, 1926–1936 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 1–159CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Angerer, Thomas, ‘Kontinuitäten und Kontraste der französischen Österreichpolitik 1919–1955’, in Koch, Klaus, Rauscher, Walter, Suppan, Arnold and Vyslonzil, Elisabeth, eds., Vom Saint-Germain zum Belvedere: Osterreich und Europa 1919–1955 (Munich: Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 2007), 129–57Google Scholar.

⁵³ Badel, Laurence, Un milieu libéral et européen: Le grand commerce français, 1925–1948 (Paris: CHEFF, 1999), 93–4, 131–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Badel, Laurence, Diplomatie et grands contrats: L'État français et les marchés extérieurs au XX^e siècle (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2010), 92–4Google Scholar; Badel, Laurence, ‘Littéraires, libéraux et Européens: l'autre versant de la construction européenne’, Journal of European Integration History, 3, 2 (1997), 23–33Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ Badel, Diplomatie, 99–101.

⁵⁵ On this dynamic, see James, End, 117–8.

⁵⁶ Serruys, Daniel, ‘L'Oeuvre économique de la S.D.N.’, La Revue des Vivants, 3 (1929), 1213Google Scholar. Note that in League trade debates, ‘plurilateral’ was used in much the same way that ‘multilateral’ is used today.

⁵⁷ Badel, milieu, 94.

⁵⁸ Serruys, Daniel, ‘L'Oeuvre économique de la S.D.N.’, La Revue des Vivants, 3 (1929), 740Google Scholar.

⁵⁹ Notes additionnelles présentées au Comité Économique par le co-rapporteur M. Riedl en annexe au rapport de M. Serruys, 16 Jan. 1929, ÖStA, AVA/Nl Riedl/115.

⁶⁰ On the formulation of the minimum standard of treatment in the early twentieth century, see Paparinskis, Martins, The International Minimum Standard and Fair and Equitable Treatment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 39–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar. León Castellanos-Jankiewicz shows that the minimum standard was a response to the proliferation of conflicting national civil codes in the nineteenth century. Crucially, it made the attribution of international rights dependent on nationality, thus excluding stateless persons. See León Castellanos-Jankiewicz, ‘Nationality, Alienage and Early International Rights’, paper presented at ‘States, Societies and Crises across Time and Space’ conference held at the European University Institute, Florence, June 2018.

⁶¹ Dunn, Frederick Sherwood, ‘International Law and Private Property Rights’, Columbia Law Review, 28, 2 (1928), 175–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Jasper Kauth emphasises that the minimum standard emerged in the nineteenth century as a tool to support North American and Western European commercial activity. See Kauth, ‘Fremdenrecht’, 210.

⁶² Theodore Kill suggests that League norms on the legal treatment of foreign nationals went beyond the customary definition of the minimum standard of treatment at the time. See Kill, Theodore, ‘Don't Cross Streams: Past and Present Overstatement of Customary International Law in Connection with Conventional Fair and Equitable Treatment Obligations’, Michigan Law Review, 106, 5 (2008), 870–1Google Scholar.

⁶³ Kant, Immanuel, Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Essay, trans. Smith, Mary Campbell (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1917), 137–42Google Scholar. Isaac Nakhimovsky emphasises the central role played by commerce – undergirded by international law – in Kant's vision of perpetual peace. He also notes, however, that Kant endorsed restrictions on trade intended to guard against exploitation by the most commercially developed states. See Nakhimovsky, Isaac, The Closed Commercial State: Perpetual Peace and Commercial Society from Rousseau to Fichte (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), 66–9Google Scholar.

⁶⁴ Bonn, Moritz and Siegfried, André, ‘Economic Tendencies Affecting the Peace of the World’, ‘Economics of World Peace’ [special issue], The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 50 (1930), 198Google Scholar.

⁶⁵ Harms, Bernhard, Vom Wirtschaftskrieg zur Weltwirtschaftskonferenz: Weltwirtschaftliche Gestaltungstendenzen im Spiegel gesammelter Vorträge (Jena: Verlag von Gustav Fischer, 1927), 340Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ Die Zentrale zur Frage der Behandlungen der fremder Angehöriger, Mar. 1926, PA AA, Sonderreferat Wirtschaft/R 118543, 1–2.

⁶⁷ Orzoff, Andrea, The Battle for the Castle: The Myth of Czechoslovakia in Europe, 1914–1948 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 57–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁸ Teichova, Alice, An Economic Background to Munich: International Business and Czechoslovakia, 1918–1938 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 97– 8, 119–21, 339–40Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ Comité Économique. Observations sur le projet de convention concernant le traitement des étrangers. Observations communiquées par M. Dolezal (Pologne), 2 Apr. 1928, LON, R 2776, 10D/295/338, 2 and Observations du Comité National Polonais sur le projet de convention relative au traitement des étrangers, 13 June 1929, PA AA, Rechtsabteilung/R 54265, 1–2.

⁷⁰ Comité Économique. Observations sur le projet de convention concernant le traitement des étrangers. Observations de M. di Nola, 14 Mar. 1928, LON, R 2776, 10D/295/338, 1–2 and League of Nations, International Conference on the Treatment of Foreigners, Preparatory Documents, C.36.M.21.1929.II (Geneva: League of Nations, 1929), 84–5Google Scholar.

⁷¹ Cannistraro, Philip V. and Rosoli, Gianfausto, ‘Fascist Emigration Policy in the 1920s: An Interpretive Framework’, International Migration Review, 13, 4 (1979), 673–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷² Tollardo, Elisabetta, Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922–1935 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 21–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷³ League of Nations. Economic Committee. Twenty-Fourth Session. Minutes of the Second Meeting, 26 Mar.1926, LON, E/24^th Session/PV2, 7.

⁷⁴ League of Nations. Economic Committee. Twenty-Seventh Session. Minutes of the Fifth Meeting, 17 Jan. 1929, LON, E/27^th Session/P.V.5(1), 22–3.

⁷⁵ Laqua, Daniel, The Age of Internationalism and Belgium, 1880–1930: Peace, Progress and Prestige (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2015), 145–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; League of Nations, Proceedings of the International Conference on the Treatment of Foreigners, C.97.M.23 (Geneva: League of Nations, 1930), 30Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ Aufzeichnungen des Herrn Staatsekretärs Dr. Trendelenburg über die Arbeiten der außerordentlichen Tagung des Comité Economique, July 1927, PA AA Rechtsabteilung/R 54262. While the central German leadership in Berlin supported the Draft Convention, Jasper Kauth notes that there was considerable resistance to it in local governments, particularly in border regions. See Kauth, ‘Fremdenrecht’, 224–5.

⁷⁷ The mandates were supposed to be governed by an ‘open door’ regime guaranteeing all League members equal economic access. In practice, this provision mainly applied to German efforts to reclaim influence in former German colonies, as there was otherwise little outside interest in mandate economies. The ‘open door’ principle was generally respected in British mandates but not in French ones, where it was seen as a cover for German revisionism. See Susan Pedersen, Guardians, 233–7.

⁷⁸ League of Nations. Economic Committee. Twenty-Fourth Session. Minutes of the Seventh Meeting, 29 Mar. 1926, LON, E/24^th Session/PV7, 26; League of Nations, Preparatory Documents, 79 and Telegram from Georg Martius, 27 Nov. 1929, PA AA, Rechtsabteilung/R 54268.

⁷⁹ Boyce, Interwar Crisis, 10–4; Cohrs, Patrick, The Unfinished Peace after World War I: America, Britain and the Stabilisation of Europe, 1919–1932 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008)Google Scholar and Tooze, Adam, The Deluge: The Great War and the Remaking of Global Order, 1916–1931 (London: Allen Lane, 2014)Google Scholar.

⁸⁰ Drummond, Ian M., British Economic Policy and the Empire 1919–1939 (Abingdon: Routledge, 1972), 70–87Google Scholar; James, End, 172–4; Harper, Marjory and Constantine, Stephen, Migration and Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 17–8, 57–9, 88–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tooze, Deluge, 348.

⁸¹ For example, strong British support was decisive in the conclusion of League transit treaties in the early 1920s and in the 1923 Convention on the Simplification of Customs Formalities. See Dungy, ‘Economic Order’, 71–7, 85–7.

⁸² Riedl, Richard, Rapport sur le Projet d'une Convention Internationale relative au Traitement des Étrangers (Paris: International Chamber of Commerce, 1929), 17Google Scholar.

⁸³ Observations du Comité National Polonais sur le projet de convention relative au traitement des étrangers, 13 June 1929, PA AA, Rechtsabteilung/R 54265, 2.

⁸⁴ League of Nations, Proceedings; Georg Martius, Schlußbericht über den Verlauf der ersten Tagung der Konferenz über die Behandlung der Ausländer, 6 Dec. 1929, PA AA, Referat Völkerbund/R 96707, 14.

⁸⁵ Report, undated (begins ‘Artikel. 1, Absatz. 1’), ÖStA, Archiv der Republik/Auswärtige Angelegenheiten/Handelspolitik/1163; Projet de lettre aux membres de la délégation française, undated, AMAE, SDN/1381, 222–6.

⁸⁶ League of Nations, Proceedings, 141–53, 210–20.

⁸⁷ League of Nations, Preparatory Documents, 5, 39. In broad terms, Article 8 anticipated Mode 4 of the General Agreement on Trade in Services, concluded in 1995. This multilateral framework, supervised by the WTO, has primarily been used to facilitate the mobility of managers and other highly skilled professionals linked to trade. See Lavenex, Sandra and Jurje, Flavia, ‘The Migration-Trade Nexus: Migration Provisions in Trade Agreements’, in Talani, Leila Simona and McMahon, Simon, eds., Handbook of the International Political Economy of Migration (Edward Elgar: Cheltenham, 2015), 259–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁸ League of Nations, Proceedings, 141–53.

⁸⁹ Ibid., 146.

⁹⁰ Ibid., 146, 215.

⁹¹ Ibid., 143, 212.

⁹² Ibid., 67–9, 84–5.

⁹³ Ibid., 67–9.

⁹⁴ Ibid., 72.

⁹⁵ Ibid., 72.

⁹⁶ Ibid., 78.

⁹⁷ Ibid., 79.

⁹⁸ Ibid., 78.

⁹⁹ Ibid., 80.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., 25.

¹⁰¹ The meeting minutes and working papers related to Devèze's second round of negotiations in 1930–1 can be found in PA AA, Rechtsabteilung/R 54269–54279 and LON R 2885 dossier 10D/23109.

¹⁰² Aufzeichnung über die vierte Sieben-Mächtbesprechung des Entwurfs über die Behandlung der Ausländer in Genf, 11 Nov. 1931, PA AA, Rechtsabteilung/R 54277, 2.

¹⁰³ Letter from Richard Riedl to Charles Smets, 30 Oct. 1930, LON, R 2885, 10D/23109/23109 and Observations du Gouvernement fédéral autrichien concernant la documentation relative aux travaux de la Conférence Internationale sur le Traitement des Étrangers, 28 May 1930, PA AA, Rechtsabteilung/R 54270.

¹⁰⁴ League of Nations Economic, Financial and Transit Department, Commercial Policy in the Interwar Period, 27; Pinchis, ‘Ancestry’, 29 n. 93.