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² Erdeljac, Filip, ‘Local Experiences and the Second World War: New Perspectives on Mass Violence in Mid-Twentieth Century Europe’, Contemporary European History, 28, 3 (2019), 422–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bajohr, Frank and Löw, Andrea, eds., The Holocaust and European Societies: Social Processes and Social Dynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³ See Haan, Ido de, ‘The Holocaust in the Netherlands: National Differences in a Western European Context’, Ab Imperio, 2 (2019), 83–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Romijn, Peter, De lange Tweede Wereldoorlog: Nederland 1940–1949 (Amsterdam: Balans, 2020)Google Scholar.

⁴ Michman, Dan, ‘Jewish Leadership in Extremis’, in Stone, Dan, ed., The Historiography of the Holocaust (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 319–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵ Zeller, Ron and Griffioen, Pim, Jodenvervolging in Nederland, Frankrijk en België, 1940–1945:Overeenkomsten, Verschillen, Oorzaken (Amsterdam: Boom, 2011), 17, 654, 900Google Scholar.

⁶ Herzberg, Abel, Kroniek der Jodenvervolging 1940–1945 (Amsterdam: Querido, 1950)Google Scholar; Jong, Loe de, Het Koninkrijk der Nederland in de Tweede Wereldoorlog (Den Haag: Martinus Nijhoff, 1969–91)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a cogent summary, see Thijs, Krijn, ‘Ordinary, Ignorant, and Noninvolved? The Figure of the Bystander in Dutch Research and Controversy’, in Morina, Christina and Thijs, Krijn, eds., Probing the Limits of Categorization: The Bystander in Holocaust History (New York: Berghahn, 2019), 247–65Google Scholar.

⁷ A representative example is Vuijsje, Ies, Tegen Beter Weten In. Zelfbedrog en Ontkenning in de Nederlandse Geschiedschrijving over de Jodenvervolging (Amsterdam: Augustus, 2006)Google Scholar.

⁸ See Gans, Evelien and Ensel, Remco, ‘Historikerstreit: The Stereotypical Jew in Recent Dutch Holocaust Studies’, in Gans, Evelien and Ensel, Remco, eds., The Holocaust, Israel and ‘the Jew’: Histories of Antisemitism in Postwar Dutch Society (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2016), 341–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ van der Boom, Bart, ‘Indifference? Dutch Bystanders to the Persecution of the Jews in the Netherlands’, Yad Vashem Studies, 45, 1 (2017), 128Google Scholar.

¹⁰ For exemplary passages, see van der Boom, Bart, Wij weten niets van hun lot. Gewone Neder-anders en de Holocaust (Amsterdam: Boom, 2012), 11–14Google Scholar, 99, 173, 240, 294, 367.

¹¹ Burzlaff, Jan, ‘Confronting the Communal Grave: A Reassessment of Social Relations during the Holocaust in Eastern Europe’, The Historical Journal, 63, 4 (2020), 1054–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹² See Gans, Evelien and Ensel, Remco, ‘De Inzet van Joden als “Controlegroep”: Bart van der Boom en de Holocaust’, Tijdschrift Voor Geschiedenis, 126, 3 (2013), 388–96Google Scholar; Morina, Christina, ‘The “Bystander” in Recent Dutch Historiography’, German History, 32, 1 (2014), 101–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ van der Boom, Bart, ‘“The Auschwitz Reservation”: Dutch Victims and Bystanders and Their Knowledge of the Holocaust’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 31, 3 (2017), 385–407CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁴ See ‘Evelien Gans (1951–2018): “Achter Racisme en Vrouwenhaat Duikt ook Altijd Weer Antisemitisme Op”’, https://www.vn.nl/uiteindelijk-ben-je-toch-de-ander/

¹⁵ Moore, Bob, Survivors: Jewish Self-Help and Rescue in Nazi-Occupied Western Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010)Google Scholar; Tammes, Peter, ‘Survival of Jews during the Holocaust: The Importance of Different Types of Social Resources’, International Journal of Epidemiology, 36, 2 (2007), 330–35CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. An early work in that sense has been Flim, Bert-Jan, Omdat hun hart sprak: Geschiedenis van de Georganiseerde Hulp aan Joodse Kinderen in Nederland, 1942–1945 (Amsterdam: Kok, 1997)Google Scholar.

¹⁶ Happe, Katja, Viele falsche Hoffnungen. Judenverfolgung in den Niederlanden 1940–1945 (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2017), 100–224Google Scholar. For non-Jews, see Michman, Dan, ‘Changing Attitudes of the Dutch to the Jews on the Eve of the Holocaust’, in Michman, Jozeph, ed., Studies on the History of Dutch Jewry (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1981), 247–62Google Scholar. For rescue, see Michman, Dan, ‘Introduction: Beyond “Righteous Among the Nations”’; and ‘“Altruism”: On Rescuers and Rescue Activities During the Shoah’, in Michman, Dan, ed., Hiding, Sheltering, and Borrowing Identities: Avenues of Rescue during the Holocaust (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2017), 9–20Google Scholar.

¹⁷ von Frijtag Drabbe Künzel, Geraldien, ‘Being and Belonging: Benno Premsela, Joop Voet, Sándor Baracs, and the Holocaust in Nazi-Occupied Amsterdam’, Journal of Genocide Research, 21, 3 (2019), 418–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Benda-Beckmann, Bas von, Het Oranjehotel: Een Duitse Gevangenis in Scheveningen (Amsterdam: Querido, 2019)Google Scholar. Gans, Evelien, Jaap en Ischa Meijer: Een joodse geschiedenis 1912–1956 (Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 2008)Google Scholar is another pioneering work.

¹⁸ For the lived experiences of deported Jews, see only Lindwer, Willy, The Last Seven Months of Anne Frank (New York: Anchor Books, 1992)Google Scholar; Hájková, Anna, ‘“Poor Devils” of the Camps: Dutch Jews in Theresienstadt, 1943–1945’, Yad Vashem Studies, 43, 1 (2015), 77–111Google Scholar. For the use of Jewish documents within the Netherlands, see Braber, Ben, This Cannot Happen Here: Integration and Jewish Resistance in the Netherlands, 1940–1945 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2013)Google Scholar; Haan, Ido van, ‘Prominent Jews: the Absence and Presence of Jews in Postwar Netherlands’, Historein, 18, 2 (2019)Google Scholar. A model in studying perceptions is Dreifuss, Havi, Relations Between Jews and Poles: The Jewish Perspective (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2017)Google Scholar and, for diaries, Garbarini, Alexandra, Numbered Days. Diaries and the Holocaust (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹ Ten testimonies from the Wiener Holocaust Library (WHL), London, from the 1950s; forty diaries from the Instituut voor Oorlogs-, Holocaust en Genocidestudies (NIOD), Amsterdam; fifteen testimonies from the Ghetto Fighters’ House Archives (GFH), Israel, from the 1950s and 1960s; the entire collection of Dutch Jews and some Protestants (236) from the Fortunoff Video Archive (HVT), New Haven; 200 video testimonies from the Yad Vashem Archives (YVA), the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM) and the USC Shoah Foundation (VHA), recorded in the 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s.

²⁰ See ‘Theme 5: Witnessing in Dialogue: Testifiers, Readers, and Viewers’, in Simone Gigliotti and Hilary Earl, eds., A Companion to the Holocaust (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2020), 449–553.

²¹ See Tammes, Peter, ‘Surviving the Holocaust: Socio-Demographic Differences Among Amsterdam Jews’, European Journal of Population, 33, 3 (2017), 293–318CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed, who shows that immigrants, particularly Poles, youth and women, had better survival chances because they were more likely to hide or flee. For Theresienstadt, Hájková, ‘“Poor Devils” of the Camps’ reaches the same conclusion.

²² One recurrent point of criticism remains the ‘representativeness’ of the sample used, but as this essay hopes to demonstrate, the best remedy is to combine scales of analysis and as many testimonies as possible.

²³ For a book forum in English and these points of critique, see Burzlaff, Jan, ‘Introduction’, Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies, 39, 2 (2021), 236–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and 246–86 for four insightful essays. Parting ways with Sémelin's small selection of sources, this essay strives for a larger sample.

²⁴ Sémelin, Jacques, The Survival of the Jews in France, 1940–44 (Oxford: Holt, 2019), 193CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Sémelin, Jacques, Unarmed against Hitler: Civilian Resistance in Europe, 1939–1943 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1993), 84–8Google Scholar; Christina Morina, ‘The Imperative to Act: Jews, Neighbors, and the Dynamics of Persecution in Nazi Germany, 1933–1945’, in Morina and Thijs, Probing, 148–68.

²⁵ Sijes, Ben A., De Arbeidsinzet. De Gedwongen Arbeid van Nederlanders in Duitsland 1940–1945 (Den Haag: Nijhoff, 1966)Google Scholar.

²⁶ Croes, Marnix and Tammes, Peter, ‘Gif laten wij niet voortbestaan’, Een Onderzoek Naar de Overlevingskansen van Joden in de Nederlandse Gemeenten, 1940–1945 (Amsterdam: Aksant, 2004)Google Scholar.

²⁷ Erna Bindelglas, USHMM, RG-50.060.0007.

²⁸ Dr. Jacob Auerbach, WHL, PIII/18, 4.

²⁹ Shaul S., HVT 3546, 1993.

³⁰ Ilse L., HVT 0967, 1987.

³¹ Margrit R., HVT 0773, 1986.

³² Frances L., HVT 1901, 1991.

³³ Edith G., HVT 0571, 1985.

³⁴ Howard O., HVT 2439, 1993; Max H., HVT 1329, 1989; Leonard Vis, USHMM, RG-50.030.0559.

³⁵ Miep Lakmaker, WHL, PIII/785, 2. Similar trajectories for Bloeme Evers-Emden, VHA 5088 and Janny Moffie, VHA 4538. On sexual violence, see below.

³⁶ For ‘silence’, which has been criticised, in my view unfairly, see Sémelin, The Survival of the Jews, 259. See also Pierre Laborie, ‘Éloquence du silence’, in Luc Capdevila and Patrick Harismendy, eds., L'engagement et l’émancipation: Ouvrage offert à Jacqueline Sainclivier (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2015), 333–41. For a smilar approach to nonconformity and witnessing, see Marhoefer, Laurie, ‘Lesbianism, Transvestitism, and the Nazi State: A Microhistory of a Gestapo Investigation, 1939–1943’, The American Historical Review, 121, 4 (2016), 1167–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁷ This finding confirms Tammes, Peter, ‘Associating Locality-Level Characteristics with Surviving the Holocaust: A Multilevel Approach to the Odds of Being Deported and to Risk of Death among Jews Living in Dutch Municipalities’, American Journal of Epidemiology, 188, 5 (2019), 896–906CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For more examples, see Sybilla F., HVT 1855, 1991; Simon F., HVT 4405, 2007; Alice/Aliza Tischauer/Peretz, GFH, 238; Betje Bilha Cohen, YVA, O.77/354.

³⁸ For a different use of ‘silence’ (stilte) regarding women in the resistance, see Schwegman, Marjan, Het Stille Verzet: Vrouwen in Illegale Organisaties: Nederland 1940–1945 (Amsterdam: Socialistische Uitgeverij, 1980)Google Scholar.

³⁹ Marguerite M., HVT 2474, 1992.

⁴⁰ Keetje Frank, NIOD, 244, 734, 10ff.

⁴¹ Froukje A. Demant, Verre Buren: Samenleven in de Schaduw van de Holocaust, PhD Thesis, University of Amsterdam, 2015), https://hdl.handle.net/11245/1.477581.

⁴² For a useful overview of this narrative, see Have, Wichert ten, 1940: Verwarring en Aanpassing. Leven in bezet Nederland (Amsterdam: Spectrum, 2015)Google Scholar. In a classic piece, Gerhard Hirschfeld argued that the first phase of the occupation paved the way for a later resistance, but the same was true for grassroots social reactivity: Hirschfeld, Gerhard, ‘Collaboration and Attentism in the Netherlands 1940–1941’, Journal of Contemporary History, 16, 3 (1981), 467–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴³ Yehuda Marshand, USHMM, RG-50.120.0101. If we can trust his recollection, his decision to go into hiding in 1940 predates the earliest known incident. See Fishman, Joel S., ‘On Jewish Survival during the Occupation: The Vision of Jacob van Amerongen’, Studia Rosenthaliana, 33, 2 (1999), 160–73Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Winnie S., HVT 1120, 1987; Marion L., HVT 0638, 1985.

⁴⁵ See the NIOD's project on the Dutch resistance: ‘Very Ordinary or Quite Special? New Views on People in the Resistance during the German Occupation of the Netherlands 1940–1945’, https://www.niod.nl/en/projects/very-ordinary-or-quite-special-new-views-people-resistance-during-german-occupation. For an excellent example of the complex notion of ‘collaboration’, see Dieckmann, Christoph, Deutsche Besatzungspolitik in Litauen 1941–1944 (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2011)Google Scholar. For a recent survey, see Grzegorz Rossolinski-Liebe, ‘Kollaboration im Zweiten Weltkrieg und im Holocaust – Ein analytisches Konzept’, Docupedia-Zeit-geschichte (2019), http://dx.doi.org/10.14765/zzf.dok-1444.

⁴⁶ Shaul S., HVT.

⁴⁷ Happe, Viele falsche Hoffnungen, 53–74. For the European context, see only Bryant, Chad, Prague in Black: Nazi Rule and Czech Nationalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007)Google Scholar, which is representative of many works on the fate of indifference during the war.

⁴⁸ See Tatjana Tönsmeyer, ‘Besatzungsgesellschaften. Begriffliche und konzeptionelle Überlegungen zur Erfahrungsgeschichte des Alltags unter deutscher Besatzung im Zweiten Weltkrieg’, Docupedia-Zeitgeschichte (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.14765/zzf.dok.2.663.v1.

⁴⁹ See Alfred B., HVT 1939, 1990; Anton and Marion P., HVT 1099, 1988; Frieda Belinfante, USHMM, RG-50.030.0019; Edmond B., HVT 2592, 1991. For betrayal more generally, see below.

⁵⁰ Hermina A., HVT 1360, 1990; Jetse S., HVT 0481, 1985.

⁵¹ Rudolf F., HVT 2486, 1993, nuancing Schaap, Jord, Het recht om te waarschuwen: over de Radio Oranje-toespraken van koningin Wilhelmina (Amsterdam: Anthos, 2007)Google Scholar, who argued that most people decided not to believe these speeches.

⁵² Auerbach,WHL, 6.

⁵³ Tammes, ‘Surviving the Holocaust’, 310.

⁵⁴ Among many, see Jureit, Ulrike, Erinnerungsmuster. Zur Methodik lebensgeschichtlicher Interviews mit Überlebenden der Konzentrations- und Vernichtungslager (Hamburg: Ergebnisse Verlag, 1999), 322Google Scholar; Pollin-Galay, Hannah, Ecologies of Witnessing: Language, Place, and Holocaust Testimony (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018)Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Bar-Efrat, Pinchas, Denunciation and Rescue: Dutch Society and the Holocaust (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2017)Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ Rens, Herman van, Vervolgd in Limburg. Joden en Sinti in Nederlands-Limburg tijdens de Tweede Wereldoorlog (Hilversum: Uitgeverij Verloren, 2013)Google Scholar.

⁵⁷ See von Frijtag Drabbe Künzel, Geraldien, Een Stad op Drift. Hilversum tijdens de Duitse Bezetting (Amsterdam: Boom, 2020)Google Scholar; Boerboom, Joep, Beroofd Volgens de Regels. Het Lot van Zeven Joodse Ondernemers in Deventer (Hilversum: Verloren, 2020)Google Scholar; Zalc, Claire and Bruttmann, Tal, eds., Microhistories of the Holocaust (New York: Berghahn, 2017)Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Betsy H., HVT 1277, 1989.

⁵⁹ For an analysis, see Moore, Bob, ‘Understanding Everyday Rescue: Insights from the Diary of Arnold Douwes’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 34, 2 (2020), 183–205CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bob Moore and Johannes Houwink ten Cate, eds., The Secret Diary of Arnold Douwes: Rescue in the Occupied Netherlands (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2019).

⁶⁰ Bindelglas, USHMM.

⁶¹ H. Corte, WHL, PIII/774; Jacob Soetendorp, WHL, PIII/801.

⁶² Alfred B., HVT; for Anne Frank, see Barbara Lederman Rodbell, USHMM, RG-50.030.0192.

⁶³ Herbert K., HVT 1680, 1988; Sophie F, HVT 1788, 1991.

⁶⁴ Clearly propounded in Lijphart, Arend, The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁵ Ultimately, it proves difficult to determine non-Jews’ motivations in a clear-cut way. For this literature, see Braun, Robert, ‘Religious Dominance and Empathy: Catholic Antisemitism in the Low Countries’, Theory and Society, 49 (2020), 387–415CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ridderbos, Jan and Hovingh, Geert, Predikanten in de Frontlinie: De Gevolgen van Deelname aan het (kerkelijk) Verzet in Nederland tijdens WO II (Barneveld: Vuurbak, 2015)Google Scholar; Moore, Bob, ‘Jewish Self-Help and Rescue in the Netherlands during the Holocaust in Comparative Perspective’, Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis, 124, 4 (2011), 492–505Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ Bank, Jan, God in Oorlog. De rol van de Kerk in Europa 1939–1945 (Amsterdam: Balans, 2015)Google Scholar; Braun, Robert, Protectors of Pluralism: Religious Minorities and Resistance to Genocide (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019); Marcel Poorthuis and Theodorus Salemink, Een Donkere Spiegel. Nederlandse Katholieken over Joden Tussen antisemitisme en Erkenning 1870–2005 (Nijmegen: Valkhof Pers, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁷ Tammes, ‘Associating Locality-Level Characteristics with Surviving the Holocaust’.

⁶⁸ Abraham Polak, NIOD, 244, 1469; Rosenberg, GFH, 237; Shlomo Wachner Ganor, YVA, O.33/5795.

⁶⁹ Leonard Vis, USHMM, RG-50.030.0559; L. Ziekenoppasser–Sjouwerman, NIOD, 244, 1596 and 814.

⁷⁰ Karel Poons, USHMM, RG-50.030.0183. Meijer Emmerik, NIOD 244, 1966, 5ff.

⁷¹ Liempt, Ad van, Hitler's Bounty Hunters: The Betrayal of the Jews (New York: Berg, 2005)Google Scholar.

⁷² Poons, USHMM; see also Hella D., HVT 2516, 1993; IM Leman, NIOD, 244, 411, 31ff. For similar stories, see Meershoek, Guus van, Smeets, Jos and van Es, Tommy, In de Frontlinie: Tien Politiemannen en de Duitse Bezetting (Amsterdam: Boom, 2015)Google Scholar.

⁷³ The latest controversy is Kremer, Gerard, De Achtertuin van het Achterhuis. Verraad Anne Frank Ontrafeld (Soest: Lantaarn B.V., 2018)Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ See Bar-Efrat, Denunciation, 10–14.

⁷⁵ Frances L., HVT; Tzvi Harry Klafter Eyal, YVA, O.3/3454. At least 700 intermarried Jews were sent to extermination camps: Bar-Efrat, Denunciation, 17.

⁷⁶ Most vocally in Gans and Ensel, eds., The Holocaust, Israel and ‘the Jew’.

⁷⁷ Still classic: Ronald Havenaar, De NSB tussen Nationalisme en ‘Volkse’ Solidariteit. De Vooroorlogse Ideologie Van de Nationaal Socialistishe Beweging in Nederland (The Hague: Staatsuitgeverij, 1983); Esther Keijl-Coronel, VHA 4924; Jack L., HVT 1604, 1991.

⁷⁸ It is noteworthy that Engel's decision was an early one, at least seven months before the deportations started; similarly, the brief mention of sexual barter calls for more attention: Waxman, Zoë, Women in the Holocaust: A Feminist History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁹ Selma E., HVT 0042, 1980; Rosel B., HVT 0871, 1992. For the substantial literature on hiding across Nazi Europe, see only Schrafstetter, Susanna, Flucht und Versteck. Untergetauchte Juden in München: Verfolgungserfahrung und Nachkriegsalltag (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2015)Google Scholar; Lutjens, Richard, Submerged on the Surface: The Not-So-Hidden Jews of Nazi Berlin, 1941–1945 (New York: Berghahn, 2019)Google Scholar; Natalia Aleksiun, ‘Gender and the Daily Lives of Jews in Hiding in Eastern Galicia’, Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues, 27 (2014), 38–61, and her forthcoming book.

⁸⁰ Ilse Elisheva Rozenberg, YVA, O.3/5810; Hilda G., HVT 2482, 1993; Miep Lakmaker, WHL.

⁸¹ Marion P., HVT 0754, 1986, and HVT 1097, 1988 who is the well-known Marion Pritchard-van Bisnbergen.

⁸² Gigi Kray, WHL, PIII 769; Emmerik, NIOD, 34 and 43.

⁸³ Gusarov, Katya, ‘Sexual Barter and Jewish Women's Efforts to Save their Lives: Accounts from the Righteous Among the Nations Archives’, German History, 39, 1 (2020), 100–111CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁴ Jacques Presser. Ondergang. De Vervolging en Vernietiging van het Nederlandse Jodendom, 2 vols. (The Hague: Staatsuitgeverij, 1965); Lammers, Cor, Vreemde Overheersing. Bezetten en Bezetting in Sociologisch Perspectief (Amsterdam: B. Bakker, 2005)Google Scholar; Barnouw, David, Mulder, Dirk and Veenendaal, Guus, De Nederlandse Spoorwegen in Oorlogstijd, 1939–1945. Rijden Voor Vaderland en Vrijheid (Zwolle: WBooks, 2019)Google Scholar. For elected officials such as mayors, see Romijn, Peter, Burgemeesters in Oorlogstijd–Besturen onder Duitse Bezetting (Amsterdam: Balans, 2006)Google Scholar and Wouters, Nico, Oorlogsburgemeesters 40/44: Lokaal Bestuur en Collaboratie in België (Tielt: Lannoo, 2004)Google Scholar.

⁸⁵ For a similar assessment, see van Meershoek, Smeets and van Es, In de Frontlinie.

⁸⁶ Alfred B., HVT; Corte, WHL, 3, 4.

⁸⁷ Ilse L., HVT 0294, 1984; Elsa and Kurt S., HVT 2261, 1991; Sara T., HVT 3436, 1995; Isidor Bob Trijbetz, YVA, O.33/9335.

⁸⁸ Jack P., HVT 1758 and 0601, 1982; Ilse L., HVT. See also Piersma, Hinke, Op Eigen Gezag. Politieverzet in Oorlogstijd (Amsterdam: Querido, 2019)Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ Eduard T., HVT 2003, 1992; Edith G., HVT 0571, 1985. See de Jong, Het Koninkrijk, vol. VI, 453.

⁹⁰ Hetty D., HVT 0874, 1991.

⁹¹ De Haan, ‘The Holocaust’, 90.

⁹² Expanding the first (situational helpers) and third (empathy) of four factors of rescue in: Lawrence Baron, ‘The Dynamics of Decency: Dutch Rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust’, Frank P. Piskor Faculty Lecture, St Lawrence University (1985), 6.

⁹³ See Romijn, Burgemeesters in Oorlogstijd–Besturen.

⁹⁴ Among others, van der Heijden, Chris, Grijs Verleden. Nederland en de Tweede Wereldoorlog (Amsterdam: Contact, 2001), 15Google Scholar, controversially painted a bleak picture of ‘human deficits’.

⁹⁵ Caron, Vicky, ‘Review of Jacques Sémelin: The Survival of the Jews, 1940–44’, Journal of Modern History 92, 2 (2020), 444–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹⁶ Fahnenbruck, Laura, Ein(ver)nehmen. Sexualität und Alltag von Wehrmachtsoldaten in den besetzten Niederlanden (Göttingen: V & R, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹⁷ This number was first mentioned in Benz, Wolfgang, ‘Prolog’, in Benz, Wolfgang., ed., Überleben im Dritten Reich. Juden im Untergrund und Ihre Helfer (Munich: C.H. Beck, 2003), 11–51Google Scholar. Appropriately, the third section reads ‘Different Motives: Paid Help, Risk and Self-Interest’.

⁹⁸ Sémelin, Survival, 268; Marnix Croes and Peter Tammes, ‘Gif laten wij niet voortbestaan’, 174–6. For an incriminating sense of ‘complicity’, see Barnett, Victoria J., Bystanders: Conscience and Complicity during the Holocaust (Westport: Greenwood, 1999), 113Google Scholar.