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Racial Violence in the New Germany 1990–931

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 September 2008

Panikos Panayi
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Extract

After the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 and the re-unification of Germany in the following year, the contemporary history of Germany was characterised by a rise in the more potent manifestations of racism, notably an increase in support for extreme right-wing parties and an enormous upsurge in the number of racial attacks which have taken place against minorities of all descriptions. In addition, as a reaction against the racist violence, specifically the attack upon a Turkish home in Solingen in June 1993, there was also a violent response on the part of the Turks.

Type
Theme Issue: Race and Violence in Germany – and Europe
Information
Contemporary European History , Volume 3 , Issue 3 , November 1994 , pp. 265 - 288
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

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References

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11 Hockenos, Free, 26–7; Die Zeit, 26 Sept. 1991; Weser Kurier, 24 Sept. 1991; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 24 Sept. 1991; Spiegel, 30 Sept. 1991, 41; Stern, 2 Oct. 1991, 20–6; Searchlight, Nov. 1991, 10; Frankfurter Rundschau, 23 Sept. 1991.

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19 For reactions to this incident, see, for instance, Stern, 10 Oct. 1991, 22–8, 17 Oct. 1991, 26–8; Frankfurter Rundschau, 8 October 1991.

20 See Süddeutsche Zeitung, 4 Oct. 1991; Welt, 5 Oct. 1991; Weser Kurier, 5 Oct. 1991.

21 Guardian, 4 Oct. 1991; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 4 Oct. 1991.

22 This description of peaks is based upon the list of attacks in Jürgs and Duve, Stoppt die Gewalt, 112–17.

23 Verfassungsschutzbericht, 1991, 75.

24 Stern, 21 Nov. 1991, 286–9. Neo-Nazi football fans were also involved in violence in Brussels, during a European championship qualification match between Germany and Belgium on 20 Nov., for which see Süddeutsche Zeitung, 21 Nov. 1991.

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27 Zeitung, Ostsee 6 Aug. 1992; Searchlight, Oct. 1992, 12; Hajo Funke, Brandstifter: Deutschland zwischen Demokratie und völkischem Nationalismus (thereafter Funke, Brandstifter) (Göttingen: Lamuv, 1993), 106–7Google Scholar; Observer, 30 Aug. 1992; Claus Leggewie, Druck von Rechts: Wohin treibt die Bundesrepublik? (thereafter Leggewie, Druck vonRechts) (Munich: Beck, 1993), 15Google Scholar; Daily Telegraph, 26 Aug. 1992.

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32 Süddeutsche Zeitung, 26 Aug. 1992; Ostsee Zeitung, 26 Aug. 1992; The Times, 26 Aug. 1992.

33 Süddeutsche Zeitung, 27–9, 31 Aug. 1992; Ostsee Zeitung, 27–9, 31 Aug. 1992; Independent, 31 Aug. 1992.

34 Hockenos, Free, 29; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 28 Aug. 1992.

35 Spiegel, 31 Aug. 1992, 20; Verfassungsschutzbericht, 1992, 78.

36 Süddeutsche Zeitung, 26, 27 Aug. 1992; Ostsee Zeitung, 26, 28 Aug. 1992; Hockenos, Free, 30; Searchlight, Mar. 1993, 16.

37 Die Zeit, 4 Sept. 1992.

38 Independent, 31 Aug. 1992; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 31 Aug. 1992; Searchlight, Oct. 1992, 21.

39 The Times, 11 Sept. 1992.

40 Searchlight, Oct. 1992, 21.

41 European, 10–13 Sept. 1992.

42 Verfassungsschutzbericht, 1992, 69; Searchlight, Nov. 1992, 18–20, Dec. 1992.

43 Die Zeit, 27 Nov. 1992; Hamburger Abendblatt, 24 Nov. 1992.

44 Guardian, 24 Nov. 1992.

45 Details about them can be found in: Verfassungsschutzbericht, 1992, 75; Focus, 17 May 1993; Spiegel, 1 Mar. 1993, 55–8, 13 Dec. 1993, 45–52.

46 Guardian, 24 Nov. 1992; Hamburger Abendblatt, 25, 26, 28 Nov. 1992; The Times, 25, 27 Nov. 1992; Independent, 26 Nov. 1992; Independent on Sunday, 29 Nov. 1992.

47 These figures are taken from: Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz, Pressestelle, ‘Gewalttaten in Deutschland mit erwiesenem oder vermutetem rechtsextremistischen Hintergrund im Zeitraum 1.1 93–11.11.93’ (thereafter Bundesamt, ‘1.1.93–11.11.93’); and from Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz, Abetilung, II, Gewalttaten mit erwiesener oder zu vermuteter rechtsextremistischer Motivation (thereafter Bundesamt II, Gewalttaten) (Bonn: Bundesministerium des Innern, 1993).Google Scholar

48 Ibid.

49 Searchlight, Mar. 1993, 16–17; Apr. 1993, 23–4; June 1993, 20; July 1993, 15–18.

50 Spiegel, 27 Dec. 1993, 61–72; The Times, 31 May 1993; European, 3–6 June 1993; Westdeutsche Zeitung, 1 June 1992.

51 Frankfurter Rundschau, 1, 2 June 1993; The Times, 1 June 1993; Independent, 1 June 1993; Westdeutsche Zeitung, 1 June 1993.

52 Independent, 2 June 1993; Westdeutsche Zeitung, 2 June 1993; Frankfurter Rundschau, 2 June 1993.

53 Westdeutsche Zeitung, 3, 4 June 1993; Frankfurter Rundschau, 4 June 1993.

54 Westdeutsche Zeitung, 7 June 1993; Frankfurter Rundschau, 7 June 1993.

55 Spiegel, 14 June 1993, 19; Frankfurter Rundschau, 7, 8, 9 June 1993; Westdeutsche Zeitung, 7, 8 June 1993; Searchlight, Aug. 1993, 18–19.

56 Bundesamt ‘1.1.93–11.11.93’; Bundesamt II; Frankfurter Rundschau, 21 June 1993; Searchlight, Sept. 1993, 18–19, Oct. 1993, 16.

57 Husbands, Christopher T., ‘Racism and Racist Violence: Some Theories and Policy Perspectives’, in Björgo, Tore and Witte, Rob eds., Racist Violence in Europe (thereafter Björgo and Witte, Violence) (London: Routledge, 1993), 115–17.Google Scholar

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65 Verfassungsschutzbericht, 1991, 76; Verfassungsschutzbericht, 1992, 72–3.

66 Stephen, Castles with Heather, Booth and Tina, Wallace, Here for Good: Western Europe's New Ethnic Minorities (thereafter Castles, Here for Good) (London: Pluto, 1987), 72Google Scholar; Bade, Klaus J., Ausländer, Aussiedler, Asyl in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (thereafter Bade, Ausländer), 2nd ed. (Hanover: Niedersächsisches Landeszentrale für Politische Bildung, 1992), 198.Google Scholar For historical traditions see, for instance, Ulrich, Herbert, A History of Foreign Labour in Germany: Seasonal Workers/Foreign Workers/Guest Workers (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990).Google Scholar

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73 PIO, Hostility, 75.

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75 European, 24–7 Sept. 1992; Hamburger Abendblatt, 25, 26 Nov. 1992; The Times, 27 Nov. 1992.

76 Guardian, 8 Oct. 1991; The Times, 25 Nov. 1992. See also the critical article on police inaction against racists in Spiegel, 14 Oct. 1991, 28–37.

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79 Verfassungsschutzbericht, 1991, 84; Verfassungsschutzbericht, 1992, 82.

80 For an introduction to these events see, respectively: Grimshaw, ‘Cases’; Button, James W., Black Violence: Political Impact of the 1960s Riots (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978)Google Scholar; and Peach, Ceri ‘A Geographical Perspective on the 1981 Urban Riots in England’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol.9 (1986), 397–411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

81 For details on the economic and social position of Turks in German society see, for instance, Focus, 7 June 1993, 24–6; Stern, 7 June 1993, 16–25; Sen, Faruk ‘Die Türken zwischen Integration und Kulturkonflikt’, Zeitschrift für Kulturaustausch, Vol.1 (1991), 79–96Google Scholar; Bundesamt, StatistischesStatistisches Jahrbuch 1992 für die Bundesrepublik (Wiesbaden: Statistisches Bundesamt, 1992), 126–7Google Scholar; Leggewie, Claus and Senocak, Zafir eds., Deutsche Türken: Das Ende der Geduld (Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1994).Google Scholar

82 The best general works on this subject include Michael Marrus, The Holocaust in History (Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1987); Hilberg, RaulThe Destruction of the European Jews, rev. ed., 3 vols, (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1985)Google Scholar; and Bauman, ZygmuntModernity and the Holocaust (Oxford: Polity, 1989).Google Scholar

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88 Ködderitzch, and Müller, Rechtsextremismus; Bernhard Schröder, Rechte Kerle: Skinheads, Faschos, Hooligans (Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1992), 12–14, 29–30, 70–1, 91–2Google Scholar; Ammer, Thomas ‘Prozesse gegen Skinheads in der DDR’, Deutschland Archiv, Vol.21 (1988), 804–7Google Scholar; Commichau, Imke ‘Ausländer in der DDR: Die Ungeliebte Minderheit’, Deutschland Archiv, Vol.23 (1990), 1432–4Google Scholar: Leggewie, Druck von Rechts, 167–8.Google Scholar

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91 Evans, Richard ‘Germany's Morning After’, Marxism Today, 06 1991, 21.Google Scholar

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101 Guardian, 1 June 1993.

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104 The classic work on this argument is Castles, Here for Good.

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107 Differing treatment of minorities in democracies and autocracies, although within a specific context, are considered in Panikos Panayi, ‘Dominant Societies and Minorities in the Two World Wars’, in idem ed., Minorities in Wartime: National and Racial Groupings in Europe, North America and Australia during the Two World Wars (Oxford: Berg, 1993), 3–23.Google Scholar

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110 Verfassungsschutzbericht, 1992, 66–7; Leggewie, Druck von Rechts, 167–8; Die Zeit, 12 March 1993.

111 Panayi, Panikos ‘Anti-immigrant Riots in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-century Britain’, in idem, ed., Racial Violence in Britain, 1840–1950 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1993), 1–21.Google Scholar

112 Thompson, KeithUnder Siege: Racial Violence in Britain Today (Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1988), 171.Google Scholar

113 Ford, GlynnFascist Europe. The Rise of Racism and Xenophobia (London: Pluto, 1992)Google Scholar; Campaign Against Racism and Fascism, No. 18, Feb. 1994, 4–5.

114 An enormous amount of work is being carried out on the rise of racism in Europe during the 1980s. See, for example, Solomos, John and Wrench, John eds., Racism and Migration in Western Europe (Oxford: Berg, 1993)Google Scholar and Anodia, José ed., The Resurgence of Nationalist Movements in Europe (Bradford: University of Bradford, Department of Modern Languages, 1993).Google Scholar