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German Conservatism at the Crossroads: Count Kuno von Westarp and the Struggle for Control of the DNVP, 1928–30

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 May 2009

LARRY EUGENE JONES
LARRY EUGENE JONES*
Affiliation:
Department of History, Canisius College, 2001 Main Street, Buffalo, New York 14208–1098, United States; [email protected].
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Abstract

The years from 1928 to 1930 witnessed a bitter struggle for the control of the German National People's Party (DNVP), the bastion of German conservatism in the Weimar Republic. One of the principal protagonists in this conflict was Count Kuno von Westarp, chairman of the DNVP from 1926 to 1928 and of the DNVP delegation to the Reichstag from 1924 to 1929. Westarp struggle with great determination to preserve the unity of the party in the face of a concerted effort from the radical Pan-German nationalists around the newly elected party chairman, film and press magnate Alfred Hugenberg. But Westarp's efforts on behalf of party unity ultimately failed as the moderates who stood on the DNVP's left wing abandoned the party in two secessions, the first in December 1929 and the second in July 1930. In the second of these Westarp himself left the party. In the meantime the DNVP had been transformed from a conservative Sammelpartei into an instrument of the radical right.

Le conservatisme allemand à la croisée des chemins: le comte kuno von westarp et la lutte pour le contrôle du dnvp, 1928–30

De 1928 à 1930 le contrôle du Parti national du peuple allemand (DNVP), un des bastions du conservatisme allemand pendant la République de Weimar, fait l'objet d'une lutte acharnée. Le comte Kuno von Westarp, président du DNVP de 1926 à 1928 et président de la délégation du DNVP au Reichstag de 1924 à 1929, compte parmi ses principaux protagonistes. Il a mené une lutte déterminée dans le but de maintenir l'unité du parti face à l'effort concerté des nationalistes pangermaniques extrémistes du président nouvellement élu, Alfred Hugenberg, magnat du film et de la presse. Mais les efforts de Westarp pour maintenir l'unité du parti se sont soldés par un échec lorsque les modérés de l'aile gauche du DNVP ont abandonné le parti lors de deux sécessions, la première en décembre 1929 et la deuxième en juillet 1930. Lors de la deuxième, Westarp lui-même a quitté le parti. En même temps, le DNVP avait été transformé d'une Sammelpartei en un instrument de l'extrême droite.

Der deutsche konservatismus am wendepunkt: graf kuno von westarp und der kampf um die kontrolle der dnvp, 1928–1930

Zwischen 1928 und 1930 fand ein erbitterter Kampf um die Kontrolle der Deutschnationalen Volkspartei (DNVP), einer der Bastionen des deutschen Konservatismus während der Weimarer Republik, statt. Eine der zentralen Figuren in diesem Konflikt war Graf Kuno von Westarp, Vorsitzender der DNVP von 1926 bis 1928 und Vorsitzender der DNVP-Delegation im Reichstag von 1924 bis 1929. Westarp kämpfte mit groβer Entschlossenheit um den Erhalt der Einheit der Partei gegen die konzertierten Anstrengungen der extremen pangermanichen Nationalisten, die sich um den neu gewählten Präsidenten, den Film- und Pressemagnaten Alfred Hugenberg, scharten. Westarps Anstrengungen um die Einheit der Partei schlugen jedoch fehl, als die Gemäβigten des linken Flügels der DNVP die Partei in zwei Abspaltungen verlieβen, die erste im Dezember 1929 und die zweite im Juli 1930. In der zweiten verlieβ auch Westarp selbst die Partei. Währenddessen war die DNVP von einer Sammelpartei zu einem Instrument der extremen Rechten umgeformt worden.

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Contemporary European History , Volume 18 , Issue 2 , May 2009 , pp. 147 - 177
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

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References

1 For a general overview of Westarp's role in the DNVP see Jones, Larry Eugene, ‘Kuno Graf von Westarp und die Krise des deutschen Konservatismus in der Weimarer Republik’, in Jones, Larry Eugene and Pyta, Wolfram, eds., ‘Ich bin der letzte Preuße’: Der politische Lebensweg des konservativen Politikers Kuno Graf von Westarp (1964–1945) (Cologne: Böhlau, 2006), 109–46Google Scholar. On the DNVP party crisis, see above all else Mergel, Thomas, ‘Das Scheitern des deutschen Tory-Konservatismus. Die Umformung der DNVP zu einer rechtsradikalen Partei 1928–1932’, Historische Zeitschrift, 276 (2003), 323–68Google Scholar, as well as the older studies by Chanady, Attila, ‘The Disintegration of the German National People's Party, 1924–1930’, Journal of Modern History, 39, 1 (1967), 65–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Walker, David P., ‘The German Nationalist People's Party: The Conservative Dilemma in the Weimar Republic’, Journal of Contemporary History, 14, 4 (1979), 627–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The author would like to take this opportunity to express his gratitude to the widow of Hans Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen – Gerda Freifrau Hiller von Gaertringen – and their three children – Rudolf Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen, Christian Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen and Verena Gräfin von Zeppelin-Aschhausen – for having granted him access to the private papers of Count Kuno von Westarp and for their generous hospitality on the occasion of his visits to Gärtringen. The author is also grateful to Dr Karl Mayer for his advice and assistance in the early stages of the research for this article. The author first gained access to the Westarp papers in the 1960s through the generosity of Westarp's grandson, Friedrich Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen, who had rescued the collection from Soviet-occupied Berlin after the end of the First World War. At the time of Hiller's death in 1999, the papers were badly organised, with the result that Hiller's brother and owner of the collection, Hans Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen, enlisted the help of Dr Karl Mayer, a local archivist who had specialised in the diplomatic history of the inter-war period before shifting his attention to the regional history of south-west Germany, to organise and catalogue the Westarp papers for scholarly use. Before Hans Hiller's death in 2004, Mayer was able to catalogue 132 volumes of the Westarp papers, or about two-thirds of the collection in Gärtringen. These volumes carry the prefix VN for ‘provisional number’ (vorläufiger Nummer). Thanks to a generous grant from the Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences at Canisius College, the author was able to return to Gärtringen, first in summer 2005 and then again in summer 2007, to organise and catalogue that part of the papers that Mayer had not managed to organise himself. These materials, too, covered the period from 1918 to 1933/34 and comprised an additional eighty-eight volumes of archival material that carry the prefix II. These two parts of the Westarp papers will subsequently be referred to, for example, as NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN followed by the volume number, or NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II followed by the volume number respectively. Of the materials in Gärtringen all that remain unorganised are items of a purely personal or family nature as well as his private and scholarly correspondence from 1933 to 1945. During his lifetime Westarp deposited materials on his political activities before 1920 in the Reichsarchiv. This amounts to over 240 volumes of correspondence and other documents and is available in the Bundesarchiv Berlin-Lichtenfelde as Bestand N2329. The author would also like to express his gratitude to Hans-Dieter Kreikamp of the Bundesarchiv in Berlin and to his former student Edward Snyder, currently at the University of Minnesota, for having facilitated access to documents used in the preparation of this article.

2 For further details see von Gaertringen, Friedrich Hiller, ‘Die Deutschnationale Volkspartei’, in Matthias, Erich and Morsey, Rudolf, eds., Das Ende der Parteien 1933 (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1960), 543–652Google Scholar, as well as the Hugenberg biography by Leopold, John A., Alfred Hugenberg: The Radical Nationalist Campaign against the Weimar Republic (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), esp. 55–138Google Scholar.

3 For the classic statement of Westarp's political philosophy see his essay ‘Preußens Verfassung und Verwaltung als Grundlage seiner Führerstellung im Reiche in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart’, in Preussen. Deutschlands Vergangenheit und Deutschlands Zukunft. Vier Vorträge, with an introduction by Adolph Wagner (Berlin: Reimar Hobbing, 1916), 96–140.

4 For further details see Westarp's own account of this period in his life in Kuno von Westarp, Konservative Politik im Übergang vom Kaiserreich zur Weimarer Republik, ed. Friedrich Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen with the collaboration of Karl J. Mayer and Reinhold Weber (Düsseldorf: Droste, 2001), 93–112. See also Striesow, Jan, Die Deutschnationale Volkspartei und die Völkisch-Radikalen 1918–1922, 2 vols. (Frankfurt/Main: Haag & Herchen, 1981), 9–43Google Scholar.

5 In addition to the brief biographical sketch by Friedrich Hiller von Gaertringen in Westarp, Konservative Politik, 13–20, see Everling, Friedrich, ‘Graf Westarp’, in von Arnim, Hans and von Below, Georg, eds., Deutscher Aufstieg. Bilder aus der Vergangenheit und Gegenwart der rechtsstehenden Parteien (Berlin: Franz Schneider Verlag, 1925), 453–8Google Scholar.

6 On the revaluation question and the DNVP see Jones, Larry Eugene, ‘Inflation, Revaluation, and the Crisis of Middle-Class Politics: A Study in the Dissolution of the German Party System, 1923–28’, Central European History, 12, 2 (1979): 143–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the conflict over German trade policy, see Stegmann, Dirk, ‘Deutsche Zoll- und Handelspolitik 1924/25–29 unter besonderer Berücksichtigung agrarischer und industrieller Interessen’, in Mommsen, Hans, Petzina, Dietmar, and Weisbrod, Bernd, eds., Industrielles System und politische Entwicklung in der Weimarer Republik. Verhandlungen des Internationalen Symposiums in Bochum von 12.–17. Juni 1973 (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1974), 499–513Google Scholar.

7 On the DNVP's performance in the 1926 Saxon state elections see Jones, Larry Eugene, ‘Saxony, 1924–1930: A Study in the Dissolution of the Bourgeois Party System in Weimar Germany’, in Retallack, James, ed., Saxony in German History: Culture, Society, and Politics, 1830–1933 (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2000), 336–55, esp. 337–43Google Scholar.

8 Ada Gräfin von Westarp to Getraude Freifrau von Gaertringen, n.d. [29 Jan. 1927], NL Westarp, Gärtringen.

9 Verhandlungen des Reichstags, vol. 391, 8804–6.

10 On the concept of parliamentary culture and its place in the history of the Weimar Republic, see Mergel, Thomas, Parlamentarischer Kultur der Weimarer Republik. Politische Kommunikation, symbolische Politik und Öffentlichkeit im Reichstag (Düsseldorf: Droste, 2002)Google Scholar.

11 In this respect, see von Westarp, Kuno, Deutschnationale Innenpolitik in der Regierungskoaltion, Deutschnationale Flugschrift, no. 292 (Berlin: Deutschnationale Schriftenvertriebstelle, 1927)Google Scholar, and von Westarp, Kuno, Die deutschnationale Arbeit in der Regierungskoalition. Sommertagung 1927, Deutschnationale Flugschrift, no. 296 (Berlin: Deutschnationale Schriftenvertriebstelle, 1927)Google Scholar.

12 For example, see Claß's remarks at the meeting of the ADV managing committee, 12–13 Feb. 1927, in the unpublished records of the Alldeutscher Verband, Bundesarchiv Berlin-Lichterfelde, Bestand R 8048, 149/42–56. For further details see Barry A. Jackisch, ‘“Not a Large, But a Strong Right”: The Pan-German League, Radical Nationalism, and Rightist Party Politics in Weimar Germany, 1918–1939’, Ph.D. thesis, State University of New York at Buffalo, 2000, 287–96. For an intriguing analysis of the factors that contributed to Hugenberg's success in mobilizing grass-roots opposition to Westarp's leadership of the party, see Manfred Kittel, ‘“Steigbügelhalter” Hitlers oder “stille Republikaner”? Die Deutschnationalen in neuer politikgeschichtlicher und kulturalistischer Perspektive’, in Hans-Christof Kraus and Thomas Nicklas, eds., Geschichte der Politik. Alte und neue Wege, Historische Zeitschrift, Beiheft 44 (Munich: R. Oldenburg, 2007), 201–35.

13 Hugenberg to Westarp, 17 Sept. 1927, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/25, also in the unpublished Nachlaß of Alfred Hugenberg, Bundesarchiv Koblenz (hereafter cited as BA Koblenz, NL Hugenberg), 113/78–83, reprinted in Wegener, Leo, Hugenberg. Eine Plauderei (Solln-Munich: Verlag der ‘Eisernen Blätter’, 1930), 53–4Google Scholar.

14 Westarp's remarks at a meeting of the DNVP Reichstag delegation, 12 June 1928, in the unpublished Nachlaß (personal papers) of Otto Schmidt-Hannover, Bundesarchiv Koblenz (hereafter cited as BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover), 35. For the DNVP's perspective on the election results see also Lothar Steuer, Die Deutschnationale Wahlniederlage am 20. Mai 1928. Ihre Ursachen, Zusammenhänge, Folgerungen (Anklam: Richard Poettcke Nachf., 1928), and the lengthy memorandum from the Berlin headquarters of the German National Workers’ League (Deutschnationaler Arbeiterbund) to Westarp, 12 June 1928, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 69.

15 Lambach, Walther, ‘Monarchismus’, Politische Wochenschrift, 4, 24 (14 June 1928), 495–7Google Scholar.

16 For Westarp's account of these developments, see his memorandum to the chairmen of the DNVP district and state organisations, 12 July 1928, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/30. For further details see Reichert to Wesenfeld, 9 July 1928, and Reusch, 17 July 1928, both in the unpublished Nachlaß of Walther Lambach, Bundesarchiv, Koblenz, 10a.

17 Letter from Ada Gräfin von Westarp to Gertraude Freifrau Hiller von Gaertringen, 9 Oct. 1928, NL Westarp, Gärtringen. For further details on the proposal for a triumvirate see the entries in Quaatz's diary, 27 July, 7 and 27 Sept., and 5 Oct. 1928, BA Koblenz, NL Quaatz, 16, reprinted in Weiß, Hermann and Hoser, Paul, eds., Die Deutschnationalen und die Zerstörung der Weimarer Republik. Aus dem Tagebuch von Reinhold Quaatz 1928–1933 (Munich: R. Oldenburg, 1989), 45–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 For the most detailed first-hand account of Hugenberg's election see Reichert to Reusch, 22 Oct. 1928, in the unpublished Nachlaß of Paul Reusch in the corporate records of the Gutehoffnungshütte, Rheinisch-Westfälisches Wirtschaftsarchiv Cologne, Abteilung 130 (hereafter cited as RWWA Cologne, Abt. 130, NL Reusch), 400101293/9. For further information see the entry in Quaatz's diary, 21 Oct. 1928, BA Koblenz, NL Quaatz, 16, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen, 50–2. See also the secondary accounts in Manfred Dörr, ‘Die Deutschnationale Volkspartei 1925 bis 1928’, Ph.D. thesis, University of Marburg, 1964, 391–465; and Leopold, John A., ‘The Election of Alfred Hugenberg as Chairman of the German National People's Party’, Canadian Journal of History, 7, 1 (1972), 149–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 Ada Gräfin von Westarp to Gertraude Freifrau Hiller von Gaertringen, 23 Oct. 1928, NL Westarp, Gärtringen.

20 Entry in Quaatz's diary, 2 May 1929, BA Koblenz, NL Quaatz, 16, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen, 70. See also Westarp's correspondence with Hugenberg, 19–22 April 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 122, as well as his letters to Traub, 4 May 1929, ibid., II/37, and Natzmer, 14 May 1929, ibid., VN 102.

21 For Hugenberg's concept of the party see his programmatic statement, ‘Block oder Brei?’, Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger, 24 and 26 Aug. 1928, nos. 404 and 406.

22 Report of the meeting of the DNVP executive committee, 15 June 1929, in Unsere Partei, 7, 13 (1 July 1929), 207–9. See also the entry in Quaatz's diary, 18 June 1929, BA Koblenz, NL Quaatz, 16, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen, 72–3, as well as Quaatz's letter to Westarp, 19 June 1929, NL Westarp, VN 102.

23 Westarp to Quaatz, 24 June 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 102.

24 Unsere Partei, 7, 14 (15 July 1929), 230–3. See also the circular from Hugenberg to the members of the DNVP executive committee and the chairmen of the DNVP precinct organisations (Kreisvereine), 11 July 1929, BA Berlin, R 8048, 262/11–12. By far the most useful study of the DNVP's campaign against the Young Plan and the two secessions from the DNVP that it triggered in December 1929 and July 1930 is Elisabeth Friedenthal, ‘Volksbegehren und Volksentscheid über den Young-Plan und die deutschnationale Sezession’, Ph.D. thesis, University of Tübingen, 1957.

25 For example, see the text of Westarp's speech in Berlin-Schöneberg, 10 June 1929, reprinted in Kuno von Westarp, Die deutschnationale Reichstagsfraktion und die Pariser Tributverhandlungen (Berlin: Berliner Zentral-Druckerei, n.d. [1929]), 100–3.

26 On Westarp's reaction to his exclusion from the National Referendum Committee see his letters to Hugenberg, 11 July and 19 Aug. 1929, both in NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 122. Westarp was eventually invited to join the committee but only after most of the major decisions about the form and substance of the proposed ‘Freedom Law’ had been taken. For Hugenberg's position see his letter to Westarp, 29 Aug. 1929, ibid.

27 For Westarp's immediate reaction to the proposed referendum see the letter to his son-in-law Berthold Freiherr Hiller von Gaertringen, 6 June 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 82.

28 In this respect see the letter from RLB president Martin Schiele to the headquarters of the National Referendum Committee, 13 Sept. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 122. See also the entries in Quaatz's diary, 11–12. Sept. 1929, BA Koblenz, NL Quaatz, 16, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen, 76–8, as well as Wilmowsky to Krupp, 14 Sept. 1929, in the unpublished correspondence between Wilmosky and Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, Historisches Archiv Krupp, Essen (hereafter cited as HA Krupp), FAH 23/503. For a detailed statement of the RLB's position see ‘Stellungnahme gegen ¶4 des Gesetzesvorschlages gegen die Versklavung des deutschen Volkes’, 17 Sept. 1929, appended to the letter from the RLB headquarters to Westarp, 17 Sept. 1929, in the unpublished records of the Reichs-Landbund, Bundesarchiv Berlin, Bestand R 8034 I (hereafter cited as BA Berlin, R 8034 I), 120b/324–8. For further information on the rift between the DNVP and RLB over the language of the so-called Freedom Law see Andreas Müller, ‘Fällt der Bauer, stürzt der Staat’. Deutschnationale Agrarpolitik 1928–1933 (Munich: Utz, 2003), 123–56; and Gessner, Dieter, Agrarverbände in der Weimarer Republik. Wirtschaftliche und soziale Voraussetzungen agrarkonservativer Politik for 1933 (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1976), 222–7Google Scholar, as well as Müller, Markus, Die Christlich-Nationale Bauern- und Landvolkpartei 1928–1933 (Düsseldorf: roste, 2001), 118–38Google Scholar. The recent monograph by Merkenich, Stephanie, Grüne Front gegen Weimar. Reichs-Landbund und agrarischer Lobbyismus 1918–1933 (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1998)Google Scholar, contains surprisingly little on the RLB's role in the campaign against the Young Plan.

29 Westarp to Hugenberg, 17 Sept. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 122.

30 Invitation from Westarp, 18 Sept. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/35.

31 Westarp's note on a meeting of DNVP party leaders, 20 Sept. 1929, ibid. See also the entries in Quaatz's diary, 21–23 Sept. 1929, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen, 79–81.

32 In this respect see the letters from Schiele to the members of the National Referendum Committee, 20 Sept. 1929, in the unpublished records of the Reichs-Landbund, Bundesarchiv Berlin, Bestand R 8034 I, 120b/320–23, and to Hugenberg, 20 Sept. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 122.

33 In this respect see the article by Schiele, ‘Vorwärts mit aller Kraft für das Volksbegehren’, Sächsische Bauern-Zeitung, 36, 42 (20 Oct. 1929), 424–5.

34 For example, see the correspondence between Schiele and Hugenberg, 25 Sept.–16 Oct. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 122. For the Hugenberg perspective see the entry in Quaatz's diary, Oct. 1929, as well as the letter from Quaatz to Hugenberg, 13 Oct. 1929, BA Koblenz, NL Quaatz, 16, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen, 83–5.

35 For example, see the particularly bitter debate at the meeting of the RLB executive committee, 1 Nov. 1929, in the unpublished records of the National Rural League, Bundesarchiv Berlin, Bestand R 8034 I, 120a/123–37. For further information see the documents published in Gessner, Dieter, ‘“Grüne Front” oder “Harzburger Front”. Der Reichs-Landbund in der letzten Phase der Weimarer Republik zwischen wirtschaftlicher Interessenpolitik und nationalistischem Revisionsanspruch’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 29, 1 (1981), 110–23Google Scholar.

36 Protocol of the national congress (Reichstreffen) of the Christian-Socials in Bielefeld, 19 Aug. 1928, in the unpublished Nachlaß of Reinhard Mumm, Bundesarchiv Berlin (hereafter cited as BA Berlin), NL Mumm, 282/181–95. For the best secondary account of the Christian-Social mutiny against Hugenberg see Friedrich, Nobert, ‘Die christlich-soziale Fahne empor!’ Reinhard Mumm und die christlich-soziale Bewegung (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1997), 230–56Google Scholar.

37 See in particular Büchenschütz's remarks at the national congress of the Christian-Socials, 19 Aug. 1928, BA Berlin, NL Mumm, 282/185. The leaders of the CSRV were particularly interested in defining their relationship to the Christian People's Service (Christlicher Volksdienst), the Evangelical People's Service (Evangelischer Volksdienst) and similar groups that had sprung up in Württemberg and other parts of the country. For further details see Opitz, Günter, Der Christlich-soziale Volksdienst. Versuch einer protestantischen Partei in der Weimarer Republik (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1969), 33–133Google Scholar.

38 Lambach to Rippel and Koch, 11 October 1928, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 91. For further information on the uneasiness of the DNVP's Christian-Social wing see Treviranus to Westarp, 1 and 8 Aug. 1928, ibid.

39 In this respect see the speech by Hülser, Gustav, ‘Die Sozialpolitik und ihre Gegner’, in Niederschrift der Verhandlungen des 12. Kongresses der christlichen Gewerkschaften Deutschlands Frankfurt a. Main 15. bis 18. September 1929 (Berlin-Wilmersdorf: Christlicher Gewerkschaftsverlag, n.d. [1929]), pp. 249–67Google Scholar. On the plight of the Christian labour leaders within the DNVP see the detailed study by Stupperich, Amrei, Volksgemeinschaft oder Arbeitersolidarität. Studien zur Arbeitnehmerpolitik in der Deutschnationalen Volkspartei (Göttingen and Zurich: Muster-Schmidt, 1982), 146–70Google Scholar.

40 Draft of Mumm's speech, ‘Wir Christlich-sozialen und die Parteikrise der Gegenwart’, n.d. [July–Aug. 1929], BA Berlin, NL Mumm, 283/168–70. See also Hülser, ‘Christlich-soziale Realpolitik’, Der Deutsche, no. 171, 24 July 1929, and Hülser, ‘Christlich-sozialer Aufbruch’, Der Jungdeutsche, no. 175, 30 July 1929.

41 For example, see Lind to Hugenberg, 6 May 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 83; Richthofen-Bogulsawitz to Westarp, 6 May 1929, ibid., 102; and Gereke to Westarp, 28 June 1929, ibid., II/35, as well as Wilmowsky to Hugenberg, 11 Oct. 1929, BA Berlin, R 8034 I, 120a/148–9. For further information on the problems the CNBLP was creating for the DNVP see Boedicker to Westarp, 9 Aug. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/35.

42 For further details see Patch, William L. Jr, Christian Trade Unions in the Weimar Republic 1918–1833: The Failure of ‘Corporate Pluralism’ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 148–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Roder, Hartmut, Der christlich-nationale Deutsche Gewerkschaftsbund (DGB) im politisch-ökonomischen Kräftefeld der Weimarer Republik (Frankfurt a.M., Bern, and New York: Lang, 1986), 461–6Google Scholar.

43 Westarp to Dous, 8 Nov. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 110. For a more extensive discussion of Westarp's views on National Socialism see Karl J. Mayer, ‘Kuno Graf von Westarp als Kritiker des Nationalsozialismus’, in Jones and Pyta, ‘Ich bin der letzte Preuße’, 189–216.

44 In this respect see the untitled twenty-four-page memorandum on the origins and course of the DNVP party crisis, November–December 1929, that Westarp wrote most likely in December 1929 (hereafter cited as Westarp, Niederschrift über die DNVP-Parteikrise, 1929), NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

45 See Westarp's recollection of his conversation with Lindeiner-Wildau in late October 1929, ibid.

46 For example, see the detailed report from Blank to Reusch, 30 Oct. 1929, RWWA Cologne, Abt. 130, NL Reusch, 4001012024/6.

47 Westarp's first statement before the DNVP executive committee, 21 Nov. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61. For the text of Hugenberg's speech before the DNVP executive committee see BA Berlin, R 8005, 54/3–5.

48 See in particular the resolution adopted and published by the DNVP district executive committee (Landesvorstand) in Potsdam II, 6 Nov. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, 1929, II/35.

49 Westarp to Wallraf, 26 Nov. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/37.

50 Treviranus to Ahlefeld, 1 Nov. 1929, BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 73. The text of the letter may also be found in an apologetic by G. R. Treviranus, ‘Rückblick’, Als Manuskript gedruckt (n.p., n.d. [1930]), p. 4, a copy of which may be found in NL Westarp, Gärtringen, as well as in the unpublished Nachlaß of Ferdinand Freiherr von Lüninck, Vereinigte Westfälische Adelsarchive, Münster, 823.

51 Westarp's second statement before the DNVP executive committee, 21 Nov. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

52 Treviranus, ‘Rückblick’, 7.

53 Hugenberg, Alfred, Klare Front zum Freiheitskampf! Rede gehalten auf dem 9. Reichsparteitag der Deutschnationalen Volkspartei in Kassel am 22. November 1929, Deutschnationale Flugschrift 339 (Berlin: Deutschnationale Schriftenvertriebstelle, 1929), esp.3–5, 7–8Google Scholar.

54 Hartwig's speech before the DNVP party congress, Kassel, 22 Nov. 1929, BA Berlin, R 8005, 55/44–53.

55 Breuer, ‘Bericht über den deutschnationalen Parteitag in Kassel vom 21.–23.11.1929’, in the unpublished records of the Reich Chancery, Bundesarchiv Berlin, Bestand R 43 I (hereafter cited as BA Berlin, R 43 I), 2654/288–96.

56 Westarp to Wallraf, 26 Nov. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/37.

57 Westarp, Niederschrift über die DNVP-Parteikrise, Dec. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

58 The text of Westarp's draft has been preserved in NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

59 Westarp, Niederschrift über die DNVP-Parteikrise, Dec. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

60 Ibid. See also the entry in Quaatz's diary, n.d. [29 Nov. 1929], BA Koblenz, NL Quaatz, 16, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen, 91–92.

61 Westarp, Niederschrift über die DNVP-Parteikrise, Dec. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61. See also Treviranus's account of these developments in Treviranus, ‘Rückblick’,7–9.

62 Westarp, Niederschrift über die DNVP-Parteikrise, Dec. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

63 Verhandlungen des Reichstags, vol. 426, 1.

64 For the text of this statement see Klärung und Sammlung. Der Wortlaut der wichtigeren Veröffentlichungen gelegentlich der Klärung im deutschnationalen Lager. Als Handschrift gedruckt (N.p., n.d. [1929–30]), 8.

65 Ibid, 8.

66 Westarp, Niederschrift über die DNVP-Parteikrise, Dec. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

67 For example, see the article by Lambach, ‘Gegen Erstarrungserscheinungen im politischen Leben’, Berliner Börsen-Zeitung, 2 Dec. 1929, no. 562, reprinted in Klärung und Sammlung, 3–6. See also the entry in Quaatz's diary, 2 Dec. 1929, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen, 92–3.

68 Klärung und Sammlung, 9. A synopsis of the meeting from the perspective of the DNVP party leadership may be found in DNVP, Mitteilung no. 51, 5 Dec. 1929, in the unpublished Nachlaß of Alfred Diller, Forschungsstelle für Zeitgeschichte in Hamburg (hereafter cited as FZG Hamburg, NL Diller), 10.

69 Hartwig's speech before the DNVP executive committee, 3 Dec. 1929, BA Berlin, R 8005, 55/19–27, reprinted in its entirety in Klärung und Sammlung, 9–18.

70 Westarp's speech before the DNVP executive committee, 3 Dec. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

71 DNVP, Mitteilung no. 51, 5 Dec. 1929, FZG Hamburg, NL Diller, 10.

72 Westarp to Wallraf, 5 Dec. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/37.

73 The text of their statements and resignation letters have been reprinted in Klärung und Sammlung, 18–30, as well as in the official DNVP publication, Die Abtrünnigen. Die Geschichte einer Absplitterung, die die Festigung einer Partei brachte, Deutschnationales Rüstzeug, no. 16 (Berlin: Deutschnationale Schriftenvertriebstelle, 1930), 13–20. See also the account of the DNVP secession in Blank to Reusch, 5 Dec. 1929, RWWA Cologne, Abt. 130, NL Reusch, 4001012024/6.

74 Wilmowsky to Krupp, 7 Dec. 1929, HA Krupp, FAH 23/503.

75 In this respect see ‘Kundgebung der deutschnationalen Führer’, Mitteilungen der Deutschnationalen Volkspartei, 6 Dec. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/38, repr. with supporting materials in Unsere Partei 7, no. 24 (15 Dec. 1929), 417–28.

76 Claß to Wegener, 24 May 1929, in the unpublished Nachlaß of Leo Wegener, Bundesarchiv Koblenz, 23. This can be seen particularly well in the case of Saxony. For further details see Jones, ‘Saxony’, 343–54.

77 In this respect see the letter from Count von Seidlitz-Sandreczki, chairman of the Central Association of German Conservatives, to Westarp, 6 Dec. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/37, as well as the article by Hugenberg's close supporter Paul Bang, ‘Nicht Führerkrise, sondern Fraktionskrise’, Deutsche Zeitung, no. 287, 7 Dec. 1929. See also the account of the secession by Steuer, Hugenberg loyalist Lothar, Absplitterung von der D.N.V.P., Volk und Vaterland, nos. 160–2 (Kassel: Volk und Vaterland, 1930), 1–8Google Scholar.

78 Westarp to Wallraf, 5 Dec. 1929, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/37. See also Westarp's letter to Countess Sanna von Westarp, 14 Dec. 1929, ibid., VN 104, as well as his account in Westarp, Niederschrift über die DNVP-Parteikrise, Dec. 1929, ibid., II/61.

79 Westarp's memorandum on his conversation with Hugenberg, 15 Jan. 1930, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61, reprinted in Maurer, Ilse and Wengst, Udo, eds., Politik und Wirtschaft in der Krise 1930–1932. Quellen zur Ära Brüning, 2 vols. (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1980), I, 13–18Google Scholar. For Schiele's own position on the situation within the DNVP see his letter to Traub, 4 Feb. 1930, in the unpublished Nachlaß of Gottfried Traub, Bundesarchiv, Koblenz, 67/106–7.

80 For the classic analysis of this process see Conze, Werner, ‘Die Krise des Parteienstaates in Deutschland 1929/30’, Historische Zeitschrift, 178 (1954), 47–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the political strategy of Germany's military elite see Vogelsang, Thilo, Reichswehr, Staat und NSDAP. Ein Beitrag zur deutschen Geschichte 1930–1932 (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1962), 65–80Google Scholar.

81 Westarp, untitled memorandum on the formation of the Brüning cabinet and the negotiations through the rejection of the first no-confidence motion on 3 April 1930, n.d. [Apr. 1930], NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 112–14. Schiele's conditions are outlined in a letter to Brüning, 29 Mar. 1930, in the unpublished Nachlaß of Hermann Pünder, Bundesarchiv, Koblenz, 131/231–34. On the circumstances and strategic considerations that surrounded the formation of the Brüning cabinet see Patch, William L. Jr, Heinrich Brüning and the Dissolution of the Weimar Republic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 73–89Google Scholar; and Hömig, Herbert, Brüning. Kanzler in der Krise der Republik. Eine Weimarer Biographie (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2000), 149–57Google Scholar.

82 Schiele to Hugenberg, 31 Mar. 1930, BA Berlin, R 8005, 36/120–21.

83 Roeske, Ulrich, ‘Brüning und die Volkskonservativen (1930)’, Zeitschrift für Geschichtwissenschaft, 19 (1971), 904–15Google Scholar. See also Erasmus, Jonas, Die Volkskonservativen 1928–1933. Entwicklung, Struktur, Standort und politische Zielsetzung (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1965), 63–65Google Scholar.

84 Notes on the meeting of the DNVP Reichstag delegation, 1 Apr. 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 72a/81–83, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 107–8. For further information on the situation within the DNVP see Blank to Reusch, 2 Apr. 1930, RWWA Cologne, Abt. 130, NL Reusch, 4001012024/6, and Westarp's memorandum on the formation of the Brüning cabinet, n.d. [Apr. 1930], NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61, both reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 110–14.

85 Westarp's remarks at a meeting of the DNVP Reichstag delegation, 2 Apr. 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 72a/83–86, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 108–10.

86 Entry in Quaatz's diary, 2 Apr. 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Quaatz, 16, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen, 107.

87 See Obefohren's report at a meeting of the DNVP Reichstag delegation, 3 Apr. 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 72a/86–87, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 112, as well as the entry in Quaatz's diary, 3 Apr. 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Quaatz, 16, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen,107. See also DNVP Parteizentrale, Sondermitteilung no. 12a, 16 Apr. 1930, BA Berlin, R 8005, 11/31–35.

88 Hugenberg's interpellation in the Reichstag, 3 Apr. 1930, reprinted in Unsere Partei 8, no. 7 (4 Apr. 1930), 61–62. For a somewhat tortured defence of this decisions see Hugenberg to Hitler, 3 Apr. 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 30, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 114–16.

89 Westarp, ‘Das Kabinett Brüning und die Deutschnationale Volkspartei’, Neue Preußische (Kreuz-)Zeitung, 6 Apr. 1930, no. 98.

90 For example, see Quaatz, ‘Kabinett Brüning und deutsche Bauernnot’, Der Tag, 12 Apr. 1930, no. 88.

91 Unsere Partei 8, no. 8 (16 April 1930), 78–79. For a more detailed account of the proceedings of the DNVP executive committee, 8 Apr. 1930, see the unpublished memoirs of Hans Hilpert, ‘Meinungen und Kämpfe. Meine politischen Erinnerungen’, Nachlaß Hans Hilpert, Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv, Munich (hereafter cited as BHStA Munich, NL Hilpert), 22/4263–65.

92 In this respect see Hugenberg's remarks before the DNVP Reichstag delegation, 11–12 Apr. 1930, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 72a, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 132–138.

93 In this respect see Richthofen-Boguslawitz to Hugenberg, 13 Apr. 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 74. See also Lind to Kriegsheim, 2 May 1930, with attachments, BA Berlin, R 8034 I, 99/4–24. For further details see Müller, ‘Fällt der Bauer, stürzt der Staat’, 158–82.

94 On 12 April 1930 the DNVP Reichstag delegation split thirty-one to twenty-three in favour of the government's decision to combine the tax and farm bills into a single bill. On 14 April 1930 the margin in the DNVP Reichstag delegation was thirty-six deputies in favour of the government's tax and farm bills and twenty opposed. In both cases there were eight absences, three for reasons of health. For further details see Reichert, ‘Die parlamentarische Vorgänge in den Tagen vom 1. bis 14. April 1930’, n.d. [Apr. 1930], BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 74, as well as the entries in Quaatz's diary, 10–14 April 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Quaatz, 16, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen,108–11.

95 Westarp, ‘Agrarprogramm und Steuervorlage’, Neue Preußische (Kreuz-)Zeitung, 17 Apr. 1930, no. 108. See also Westarp to Hugenberg, 16 Apr. 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 74, also in BA Berlin, R 8005, 11/45–51.

96 Westarp to Foertsch, 28 May 1930, NL Westarp, Gärtringen.

97 For example, see ‘Kampf des Hugenberg-Kreises gegen den Landbund’, n.d. [Apr. 1930], and ‘Politische Methoden der parteioffiziösen Presse im Kampf gegen Minister Schiele und das Kabinett Brüning’, 23 Apr. 1930, both in NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 20.

98 For example, see the resolution adopted by the DNVP district organisation in Potsdam II, reprinted in Der Tag, no. 96, 22 Apr. 1930.

99 See Hugenberg's remarks at the meeting of the DNVP executive committee, 25 Apr. 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 72a, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 138–49.

100 Westarp's speech before the DNVP executive committee, 25 Apr. 1930, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

101 Unsere Partei 8, no. 9 (1 May 1930), 86–7.

102 See the correspondence between Westarp and Hugenberg, 2–5 May 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Hugenberg, 190, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 153–4.

103 Westarp, ‘Betr. Trennungsabsichten’, [undated manuscript from before July 1930], NL Westarp, Gärtringen, XII/61.

104 For the most detailed record of these negotiations see the entries in Passarge's diary, 5–30 Jan. 1930, in the unpublished Nachlaß of Hans Passarge, Bundesarchiv Koblenz (hereafter cited as BA Koblenz, NL Passarge), 2/8–26.

105 For further details see Müller, Markus, Die Christlich-nationale-Bauern- und Landvolkpartei 1928–1933 (Düsseldorf: Droste, 2001), 139–161Google Scholar.

106 On the founding of the CSVD see Um die neue Front. Die Vereinigung der Stöckerschen Christlich-Sozialen mit dem Christlichen Volksdienst. Ein Rückblick auf die Berliner Verhandlungen vom 27./28. Dezember 1929, Schriften des Christlichen Volksdienstes, no. 5 (Korntal-Stuttgart: Christl. Volksdienstverl., n.d. [1930]). The course of these negotiations can be reconstructed from materials in BA Berlin, NL Mumm, 284. See also Opitz, Volksdienst, 150–5.

107 Volkskonservative Stimmen. Zeitschrift der Volkskonservativen Vereinigung 1, no. 1 (1 Feb. 1930): 1. See also Treviranus, Gottfried, Auf neuen Wegen, Volkskonservative Flugschriften, no. 2 (Berlin: Volkskonservative Vereinigung, 1930), 5–8Google Scholar. For further details see Jonas, Volkskonservativen, 57–60.

108 Westarp to Berg, 19 Jan. 1930, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 1.

109 See the report of Scholz's speech in Reichsgeschäftsstelle der Deutschen Volkspartei, ed., 8. Reichsparteitag der Deutschen Volkspartei in Mannheim vom 21. bis 23. März 1930 (Berlin: Reichsgeschäftsstelle der DVP, n.d. [1930]), 3–6. For the strategic calculations that lay behind this speech see Scholz's speech at a meeting of the DVP national committee (Reichsausschuß), 2 Mar. 1930, in the unpublished records of the German People's Party, Bundesarchiv Koblenz, Bestand R 45 II, 32/25–27. For further details see Jones, Larry Eugene, German Liberalism and the Dissolution of the Weimar Party System, 1918–1933 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 355–8Google Scholar; and Richter, Ludwig, Die Deutsche Volkspartei 1918–1933 (Düsseldorf: Droste, 2002), 615–21Google Scholar.

110 Westarp, ‘Betr. Trennungsabsichten’, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

111 Ibid.

112 For further details see Blank to Reusch, 24 May 1930, RWWA Cologne, Abt. 130, NL Reusch, 4001012024/6, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 174–6.

113 Westarp to Schultz-Bromberg, 28 June 1930, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 24.

114 See Hugenberg's remarks before the DNVP Reichstag delegation, 2 and 10 July 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 72a, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 272–3, 277–81.

115 On the general background of the July crisis see Patch, Brüning, 89–94, and Hömig, Brüning, 167–90, as well as the classic study by Bracher, Karl Dietrich, Die Auflösung der Weimarer Republik. Eine Studie zum Problem des Machtverfalls in der Demokratie, 4th edn (Villingen/Schwarzwald: Ring Verl., 1960), 335–47Google Scholar.

116 Entry in Quaatz's diary, [ca. 17–18] July 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Quaatz, 16, reprinted in Weiß and Hoser, Die Deutschnationalen, 114–15.

117 Hugenberg's remarks at the morning session of the DNVP Reichstag delegation, 17 July 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 72a, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 286–9.

118 Minutes of the morning session of the DNVP Reichstag delegation, 17 July 1930, ibid.

119 On Brüning's meeting with Hugenberg and Ernst Oberfohren from the DNVP party leadership on 17 July 1930 see Pünder's memorandum of 19 July 1930, BA Berlin, R 43 I, 2654/235–6.

120 Minutes of the evening session of the DNVP Reichstag delegation, 17 July 1930, BA Koblenz, NL Schmidt-Hannover, 72a, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 296–9.

121 Text of Westarp's statement before the DNVP Reichstag delegation, 18 July 1930, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

122 Neue Preußische (Kreuz-)Zeitung, nos. 203 and 205, 20 and 22 July 1930.

123 Westarp, ‘Die Gründe der Trennung von der Deutschnationalen Volkspartei’, Neue Preußische (Kreuz-)Zeitung, nos. 238–9, 24 Aug. 1930.

124 For the founding ceremonies of the KVP see the report in the Neue Preußische (Kreuz-)Zeitung, no. 208, 25 July 1930. For further information on the behind-the-scene negotiations that led to the founding of the KVP see the detailed reports from Blank to Reusch, 21, 23 and 24 July 1930, RWWA Cologne, Abt. 130, NL Reusch, 4001012024/7, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 305–13. On Westarp's role in these negotiations see his letters to Buch, 23 and 29 July 1930, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 1. See also Jonas, Volkskonservativen, 79–82.

125 Westarp, ‘Das Ziel konservativen Zusammenschlusses’, Neue Preußische (Kreuz-)Zeitung, 25 July 1930, no. 208.

126 Schiele, ‘Schließt die Reihen! Ein Appell an das Landvolk’, Reichs-Landbund. Agrarpolitische Zeitschrift 10, 33 (16 Aug. 1930), 315. See also the report of an interview with Schiele, Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, nos. 355–6, 2 Aug. 1930, and the letter from Schiele to Seeckt, 20 Aug. 1930, in the unpublished Nachlaß of Hans von Seeckt, Bundesarchiv-Militärachiv Freiburg, 131.

127 On the course of these negotiations see Westarp, ‘Meine Verhandlungen zwischen dem 18. Juli und dem 18. Oktober 1930’, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61. For further details see Jones, Larry Eugene, ‘Sammlung oder Zersplitterung? Die Bestrebungen zur Bildung einer neuen Mittelpartei in der Endphase der Weimarer Republik 1930–1933’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 25, 3 (1977), 265–304Google Scholar, here 269–71.

128 Westarp, ‘Bericht über die Verhandlungen mit der DVP wegen Zusammenwirkens für das Hindenburgprogramm’, n.d. [Aug. 1930], NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/40. See also Blank to Reusch, 28 Aug. 1930, RWWA Cologne, Abt. 130, NL Reusch, 4001012024/7, reprinted in Maurer and Wengst, Politik und Wirtschaft, I, 375–7.

129 Westarp to Wallraf, 28 July 1930, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, VN 5.

130 In this respect see Volkskonservative Vereinigung, ed., Konservatives Manifest, no. 4 (Berlin: Volkskonservative Vereinigung, n.d. [1931]).

131 Westarp, ‘Meine Verhandlungen’, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/61.

132 Westarp, ‘Was nun?’, Neue Preußische (Kreuz-)Zeitung, 17 Sept. 1930, no. 266. For an elaboration of the strategy that lay behind Westarp's proposal see his letter to Fumetti, 20 Sept. 1930, NL Westarp, Gärtringen, II/40.

133 For Westarp's acerbic reaction to the Harzburg Front see the letter from Gräfin v. Westarp to Freifrau Hiller v. Gaertringen, 12 Oct. 1931, NL Westarp, Gärtringen.

134 For further details see Larry Eugene Jones, ‘Hindenburg and the Conservative Dilemma in the 1932 Presidential Elections’, German Studies Review, 20, 2 (1997), 235–59.

135 For further details see Jones, ‘Sammlung oder Zersplitterung?’, 273–81.

136 For Westarp's own analysis of this dilemma see his article ‘Der Konservative im heutigen Staat’, Der Ring 3, 7 (16 Feb. 1930), 123–5.