Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-04T19:49:27.569Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Whose Makassar? Claiming Space in a Segmented City

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 October 2011

Heather Sutherland
Heather Sutherland*
Affiliation:
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
*
[email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

During the long nineteenth century, emerging bureaucratic states sought to align boundaries of space, political authority, and social identity. According to the normative ideal, ramified systems of delegated control should be consolidated into a single government, state power evenly applied throughout the entire area, and patchworks of local identities replaced with uniform citizenship. However, as Bayly has observed, states remained composite, negotiating with subordinates who retained their own spheres of influence. Integration was contested, uneven, and by no means linear. These tensions were evident in cities, with their traditions of trade and migration, and in colonial societies, characterized by the symbiosis between communal leaders and imported officials. However, even here informal controls were supplemented by state-sponsored social discipline as military power, managerial capacity, and populations expanded. Social categorizations were more rigidly enforced. Settlements and regulations became more closely packed, shrinking unclaimed space, both physical and social.

Type
Research Article
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 53 , Issue 4 , October 2011 , pp. 791 - 826
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Bayly, C. A., The Birth of the Modern World 1780–1914 (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 283Google Scholar, passim.

2 Of course even in modern cities the relationship between property developers and local government is often dubious.

3 Calhoun, Craig, ed., Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 10–12Google Scholar.

4 It would be difficult to find a complex society that lacks Frederick Cooper's three aspects of (self-) classification—relational webs: individuals locating themselves (or others) in terms of, for example, family or patron-clients ties; categorical: sharing attributes such as race, religion, or nationality; politically imposed: overriding ascription. Cooper, Frederick, Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 71–72Google Scholar.

5 Fuccaro, Compare Nelida, “Ethnicity and the City: The Kurdish Quarter of Damascus between Ottoman and French Rule, c. 1724–1946,” Urban History 30, 2 (2003): 206–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For modern global parallels, see Sklair, Leslie, The Transnational Capitalist Class (Blackwell: Oxford, 2001)Google Scholar.

6 Howell, Martha C., “The Spaces of Late Medieval Urbanity,” in Boone, Marc and Stabel, Peter, eds., Shaping Urban Identity in Late Medieval Europe (Leuven Apeldoorn: Garant, 2000), 14Google Scholar.

7 Erdentung, Aygen and Colombijn, Freek, Urban Ethnic Encounters: The Spatial Consequences (London: Routledge, 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

8 Bayly, Birth of the Modern World, 478.

9 Boeke, J. H., Economics and Economic Policy of Dual Societies, as Exemplified by Indonesia (Haarlem: H. D. Tjeenk Willink, 1953)Google Scholar; Boeke, J. H., Tropisch-Koloniale Staathuishoudkunde: Het Probleem (Amsterdam: De Bussy, 1910)Google Scholar.

10 Furnivall, J. S., Netherlands India: A Study in Plural Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1944)Google Scholar.

11 Like the Jews in Europe, Indonesia's Chinese were fundamental to urban development. In pre-colonial port towns they were just one of many commercial communities, but when the Dutch East India Company (VOC 1602–1800) expelled most foreign traders, the Chinese remained as the essential Other, needed but marginalized. Traders, artisans, and moneylenders, they were always distrusted, sometimes admired but often loathed. Chirot, Daniel and Reid, Anthony, eds., Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

12 Makassar is located on the southwest peninsula of Sulawesi (Celebes), home to the closely related Bugis and Makassarese peoples.

13 Descriptions of the city regularly grant them this status.

14 Appadurai, Arjun, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 206–7Google Scholar.

15 A kampung is an urban ward or rural settlement characterized by Asian housing (of bamboo, timber, thatch) and inhabitants.

16 Ilham, Bahrul Ulum, Marwas, Muslimin, and Haniah, St., Biduk Belum Berlabah: 400 Tahun Nafas Kota Makassar (Makassar: Humas Pemerintah Kota Makassar, 2007), 105Google Scholar. The quote refers to Karebosi.

17 For background: Ricklefs, M. C., A History of Modern Indonesia: Since c. 1200. 3d ed. (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001)Google Scholar.

18 Knaap, Gerrit and Sutherland, Heather, Monsoon Traders: Ships, Skippers and Commodities in Eighteenth-Century Makassar (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2004)Google Scholar; Reid, Anthony, “The Rise of Makassar,” Review of Indonesian and Malayan Affairs (RIMA) 17 (1983): 117–60Google Scholar.

19 Bulbeck, F. David, “The Politics of Marriage and the Marriage of Polities in Gowa, South Sulawesi, During the 16th and 17th Centuries,” in Fox, James J. and Sather, Clifford, eds., Origins, Ancestry and Alliance (Canberra: Anthropology, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1996)Google Scholar.

20 With a brief British inter-regnum, 1812–1816.

21 Knaap and Sutherland, Monsoon Traders, 145–49.

22 Sutherland, Heather, “Kontinuitas Dan Perubahan Dalam Sejarah Makassar: Perdagangan Dan Kota Di Abad Ke-18,” in Pradadimara, Dias and Effendy, Muslimin A. R., eds., Kontinunitas Dan Perubahan Dalam Sejarah Sulawesi Selatan (Makassar: Ombak, 2004)Google Scholar. Sutherland, Heather, “Treacherous Translators and Improvident Paupers: Perception and Practice in Dutch Makassar, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 53, 1–2 (2010): 319–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 Andaya, Leonard Y., The Heritage of Arung Palakka: A History of South Sulawesi (Celebes) in the Seventeenth Century (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1981)Google Scholar; Sutherland, Heather, “Trade, Court and Company: Makassar in the Later Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries,” in Locher-Scholten, Elsbeth and Rietbergen, Peter, eds., Hof En Handel: Aziatische Vorsten En De Voc 1620–1720 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

24 Sutherland, “Treacherous Translators.”

25 van Dissel, H., De Particuliere Landerijen in Het Gewest Celebes En Onderhoorigheden (Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1885)Google Scholar.

26 Poelinggomang, Edward L., Makassar Abad Xix: Studi Tentang Kebijakan Perdagangan Maritim (Jakarta: Gramedia, 2002)Google Scholar.

27 Makassar annual reports, Indonesian National Archives Jakarta, Makassar collection, nos. 3/1, 10/12; entries for “Makassar” in Encyclopaedie van Nederlandsch-Indie 1st ed., 4 vols, (Leiden: Brill, 1899–1906)Google Scholar; and Encyclopaedie Van Nederlandsch-Indie. 2d ed., 8 vols. (s-Gravenhage, Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, E. J. Brill, 1917–1939)Google Scholar; Volkstelling 1930, Volume V (Batavia: Departement fvan Economische Zaken, Landsdrukkerij, 1933)Google Scholar.

28 “Foreign Asiatics” were mainly Chinese, some Arabs, and a few Indians.

29 Bosma, Ulbe and Raben, Remco, Being “Dutch” in the Indies: A History of Creolization and Empire, 1500–1920 (Athens and Singapore: Ohio University Press and National University of Singapore Press, 2008)Google Scholar; Cees Fasseur, “Cornerstone and Stumbling Block; Racial Classification and the Late Colonial State in Indonesia,” Robert Cribb, ed. (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1994); Liem, Giok Kiauw Nio, De Rechtspositie Der Chinezen in Nederlands-Indië 1848–1942 (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Stoler, Ann Laura, “Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 31, 1 (1989): 134–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sutherland, Heather, “Ethnicity, Wealth and Power in Colonial Makassar: A Historiographical Reconsideration,” in Nas, Peter J. M., ed., The Indonesian City (Dordrecht: Foris, 1986)Google Scholar; Sutherland, “Treacherous Translators.” On colonial archives, see Stoler, Ann Laura, Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial Common Sense (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

30 Bosma and Raben, Being “Dutch”; Liem, De Rechtspositie.

31 NADH Kolonien (Dutch National Archives, The Hague), Ministry of Colonies, Vb. 16 Dec. 1972, no. 32.

32 J. W. de Klein, “Bestuursmemorie Van De Onderafdeeling Makassar,” 1947; KITLV (Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies), Leiden manuscripts, no. DH 902.

33 Ibid., H. T. Damsté, “Memorie Van Overgave Assistent Resident Van Makassar,” 1914; KITLV Leiden manuscripts, no. H 1084 (43).

34 Colombijn, Freek, Under Construction: The Politics of Urban Space and Housing during the Decolonization of Indonesia, 1930–1960 (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2009), 73–102Google Scholar, 396–402.

35 Elson, R. E., “Constructing the Nation: Ethnicity, Race, Modernity and Citizenship in Early Indonesian Thought,” Asian Ethnicity 6, 3 (2005): 145–60, 156CrossRefGoogle Scholar. However, given the right circumstances, ethnic and religious feelings can violently re-assert themselves; see: Nordholt, Henk Schulte and van Klinken, Gerry, eds., Renegotiating Boundaries: Local Politics in Post-Suharto Indonesia (Leiden: KITLV Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36 Mujiburrahman, , Feeling Threatened: Muslim-Christian Relations in Indonesia's New Order (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Purdey, Jemma, Anti-Chinese Violence in Indonesia, 1996–1999 (Honolulu: University of Hawaìi Press, 2006)Google Scholar; Sidel, John T., Riots, Pogroms, Jihad: Religious Violence in Indonesia (Singapore: National Uuniversity of Singapore Press, 2007)Google Scholar.

37 For contrast, see Raychaudhuri, Siddhartha, “Colonialism, Indigenous Elites and the Transformation of Cities in the Non-Western World,” Modern Asian Studies 35, 3 (2001): 677–726CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

38 KITLV Leiden Manuscripts, Chabot collection, no. H1251 (65) gives a total of 189,582, including 36,415 Chinese, 5,406 Europeans (including many transitory ex-internees), and 135,258 Indonesians, including refugees and former forced laborers for the Japanese. The annual growth rate was 10.5 percent between 1941 and 1945; 9.4 percent between 1946 and 1951; 7.5 percent between 1951–1955, and then dropped to 2.9 percent over the following five years; Colombijn, Under Construction 66.

39 The 1950 estimate is given in the KITLV Leiden manuscripts, Chabot collection, 1953, no. H1251 (65). Hanoch Luhukay, “Dari Makassar Ke Ujung Pandang: Beberapa Catatan Perubahan Ketatanegaraan, Tata Pemerintahan Dan Kehidupan Sosial Sebuah Kota Besar,” typescript (c. 1988), 48, 385–86; Colombijn, Under Construction, app. 1; Kotamadya Ujung Pandang Dalam Angka (Ujung Pandang: Kantor Statistik Kodya Ujung Pandang, 1993)Google Scholar.

40 Anwar, Chairil, Labour Mobility and the Dynamics of the Construction Industry: The Case of Makassar (Gottingen: Cuvillier, 2004)Google Scholar; Bambang Heryanto, The Spirit and Image of the City: A Case Study of the Changing and Developing Urban Form of Ujung Pandang, Indonesia, PhD diss., Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International, 2001); McTaggart, W. Donald, “Urban Policies in an Indonesian City: The Case of Ujung Pandang, South Sulawesi,” Town Planning Review 47, 1 (1976): 56–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Titus, M. J., Determinants and Trends of Urban Development in Ujung Pandang, Indonesia (Utrecht: Department of Geography of the Developing Countries, Faculty of Geographical Sciences Utrecht University, 1999)Google Scholar; Turner, Sarah, Indonesia's Small Entrepreneurs: Trading in the Margins (London and New York: Routledge Curzon, 2003)Google Scholar.

41 On the provincializing impact of nationalism, see Baer, Marc, “Globalization, Cosmopolitanism and the Donme in Ottoman Salonica and Turkish Istanbul,” Journal of World History 18, 2 (2007): 141–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

42 Barbara Sillers Harvey, “Tradition, Islam, and Rebellion: South Sulawesi 1950–1965” (PhD diss., Cornell University, 1974); Burhan D. Magenda, “The Surviving Aristocracy in Indonesia: Politics in Three Provinces of the Outer Islands” (PhD diss., Cornell University, 1989).

43 Amal, Ichlasul, Regional and Central Government in Indonesian Politics. West Sumatra and South Sulawesi 1949–1979 (Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1992)Google Scholar; Christoph Antweiler, “South Sulawesi: Towards a Regional Ethnic Identity? Current Trends in a ‘Hot’ and Historic Region,” paper presented at the Nationalism and Ethnicity in Southeast Asia conference, Humboldt University, Berlin, 1993.

44 Anwar, Labour Mobility.

45 For an example of a confrontation at the port, see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16sWceuDIWk&feature=related.

46 Cummings, William, Making Blood White: Historical Transformations in Early Modern Makassar (Honolulu: University of Hawaìi Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

47 Indahsari, Nilam, “Mitos: Tujuh Penyelamat Dari Karebosi,” in Farid, Lily Yulianti and Ibrahim, Farid Ma'ruf, eds., Makassar Di Panyinkul! (Makassar: Panyingkul, 2007)Google Scholar; Yasen, Syahruddin, Karebosi: Dulu, Kini Dan Esok (Makassar: Refleksi, 2008)Google Scholar.

48 Sukatanya, Yudhistira and Monoharto, Goenawan, eds., Makassar Doeloe, Makassar Kini, Makassar Nanti (Makassar: Yayasan Losari, 2000), 145–48Google Scholar.

49 Ilham, Marwas, and Haniah, Biduk; Klein, “Bestuursmemorie”; Nuruddin daeng Magassing, “Indonesian Text on Antiquities in the Town of Makassar and on the History of Bone and Wajo,” KITLV Leiden Manuscripts, no. OR 432 (4): c. 1931; Sukatanya and Monoharto, eds., Makassar Doeloe.

50 In 1671, the Mandarsyah redoubt stood on the edge of the plain. Its successor Vredenburg remained on the northeast corner of twentieth-century Karebosi. W. Ph. Coolhaas et al., eds., Generale Missiven Van Gouverneurs-Generaal En Raden Aan Heren Xvii Der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, 13 vols. (‘s-Gravenhage: Nijhoff, 1960–), vol. 3, 755.

51 Andaya, Heritage of Arung Palakka, 291–94.

52 The on-line colonial maps series of the Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, show changes in land use. Consult it by typing “Makassar” in the first field of the following website: http://www.kit.nl/smartsite.shtml?ch=FAB&id=12227.

53 Buddingh, S. A., “Het Nederlandsche Gouvernement Van Makasser Op Het Eiland Celébes,” Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië 5, 1 (1843): 411–58Google Scholar.

54 Karl von Iburg, “Makassar Zooals Het Was En Is,” Makassaarsche Courant, 7 July 1906.

55 For a slide-show, see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DbW3LLhwaR4&feature=related.

56 See note 52 and Google Earth.

57 H. F. Brune, “The Strandboulevard Te Makassar,” typescript of article published in Lokale Techniek, Nov.-Dec. 1940, no. 6, document held in the Archives of the Makassar city government (Arsip Kotamadya Makassar), Makassar branch of the Indonesian National Archives (ANRI), 38. I thank Freek Colombijn and Martine Barwegen for assistance with this material.

58 H. Van Dissel notes that Governor Beerninck (1700–1703) buried his wife at het Loo. In Particuliere, 6; van de Wall, “De Nederlandsche Oudheden in Celebes,” Oudheidkundig jaarboek 9, 4 (1929): 109–19.

59 Dissel, Particuliere, 5–7.

60 Wall, “De Nederlandsche Oudheden.” The early-nineteenth-century Arendsburg survived until at least 1922.

61 Indonesian National Archives Jakarta, Makassar collection, 168; transfer memorandum by Governor P. Th. Chasse (1800–1808). For changing land use, see note 52.

62 H. Chabot, “Enekele Resultaten van een Onderzoek onder Verschillende Bevolkingsgroepen in de Stad Makassar (Zuid-Celebes, Indonesie), gehouden in de Jaren 1951–1952,” typecript, KITLV Library, Leiden.

63 During the 1920s town planning was fashionable. Niessen, Nicole, Municipal Government in Indonesia: Policy, Law and Practice of Decentralization in Urban Spatial Planning (Leiden: Centre for Non-Western Studies, 1999)Google Scholar; van Roosmalen, K. M., “Expanding Grounds: The Roots of Urban Planning in Indonesia,” in Colombijn, Freek, Barwegen, Martine, and Basundoro, Purnawan, eds., Kota Lama Kota Baru-Sejarah Kota-Kota Di Indonesi (Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak, 2005)Google Scholar.

64 Examples can be heard in the Makassar interviews in the Stichting Mondelinge Geschiedenis Indonesie sound archive, KITLV Leiden.

65 Colombijn, Under Construction, 285–86; Niessen, Municipal Government, 223–30.

66 Brune, “Strandboulevard.”

67 Archives of the Makassar city government (Arsip Kotamadya Makassar), Makassar branch of the Indonesian National Archives (ANRI), file 38.4; Colombijn, Under Construction; Klein, “Bestuursmemorie.”

68 This excludes the old company town's private tenure and customary rights in established settlements. In 1973, more than 75 percent of Makassar's land was government-owned. McTaggart, “Urban Policies,” 70–71.

69 Niessen, Municipal Government, 44–53; Colombijn, Under Construction, 31–34; Pradadimara, Dias, “Penduduk Kota, Warga Kota, Dan Sejarah Kota: Kisah Makassar,” in Colombijn, Freek, Barwegen, Martine, and Basundoro, Purnawan, eds., Kota Lama Kota Baru—Sejarah Kota-Kota Di Indonesia (Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak, 2005)Google Scholar.

70 It was named after Gowa's central fort (see below).

71 Forbes, Dean, The Pedlars of Ujung Pandang (Melbourne: Monash University Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Working Paper 17, 1979)Google Scholar; McTaggart, “Urban Policies”; Luhukay, “Dari Makassar,” 440–73; Ma'mur, Nuraeni, Walikota Makassar Legenda Di Timur: Persembahan 400 Tahun Kota Makassar (Makassar: Yapensi, 2007)Google Scholar.

72 Fatimah, Jeanny Maria, Murniati, , and Rahmat, , “Komunikasi Antara Etnik Tionghoa Dengan Etnik Bugis-Makassar Dalam Hubungan Dengan Integrasi Bangsa Pasca Orde Baru Di Makassar,” in Laporan Penelitian Hibah Bersaing Perguruan Tinggi (Universitas Hasanuddin, 2007)Google Scholar; Hendratmoko, Heru, ed., Amuk Makassar (Jakarta: Institut Studi Arus Indonesia, 1998)Google Scholar; Mackie, Jamie, “Changing Patterns of Chinese Big Business in Southeast Asia,” in McVey, Ruth, ed., Southeast Asian Capitalists (Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1992)Google Scholar; Sidel, Riots. Post-coup violence in 1965 seriously damaged Makassar's ethnic relations; see also Coppel, Charles A., Indonesian Chinese in Crisis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), 60–61Google Scholar.

73 Local administrations held 40 percent of shares; influential local entrepreneurs the remaining 60 percent: Jusuf Kalla owned 10 percent, while Tanri Abang, another Bugis at the heart of late New Order business, controlled the remaining 50 percent. Hendratmoko, ed., Amuk Makassar. Six related families with local and Jakarta links dominated Makassar's economy, including the Bosowa and Kalla groups. Titus, Determinants and Trends; Turner, Indonesia's Small Entrepreneurs.

74 The Java-based Lippo group, active in Makassar real estate since the 1980s, developed cheap rural land into suburbs guaranteeing a middle-class life style and security. The latter was very important for Chinese. Leisch noted, “With 2,800 hectares, the most exclusive of the new towns seems to be Lippo Karawici (West Java).” The Lippo Super Mall there was targeted by rioters in 1998 and subsequently sold; it was no longer for the “upper and upper-middle classes, but for the lower classes, mainly indigenous Indonesians.” Leisch, Harald, “Perception and Use of Space by Ethnic Chinese in Jakarta,” in Aygen Erdentung and Freek Colombijn, eds., Urban Ethnic Encounters: The Spatial Consequences (London: Routledge, 2002), 105–6Google Scholar.

75 Hendratmoko, ed., Amuk Makassar, 89–95.

76 At: www.lippokarawaci.co.id/webForm/housing_homes.aspx (accessed 24 Feb. 2010; my translation from Indonesian).

77 This was despite an annual growth rate of 10 percent. Anwar, Labour Mobility; Titus, Determinants and Trends; Turner, Indonesia's Small Entrepreneurs.

78 Ilham, Marwas, and Haniah, Biduk.

79 All are my translations from the Indonesian.

80 Like many of Makassar's elite, Ilham studied at Hasanuddin University. He also has a master's degree in management from the Makassar Muslim University.

81 Ma'mur, Walikota Makassar; Moh. Yahya Mustafa, ed., Ilham Arief Sirajuddin. Perjalanan Masih Panjang (Makassar: Pustaka Refleksi, 2004). See also the municipal government website http://bahasa.makassarkota.go.id/ (hereafter Pemkot). This site (see “Keliling Kota”) gives images of Losari and modern Makassar's development (as do the Makassar threads on http://www.skyscrapercity.com.) as well as maps: http://bahasa.makassarkota.go.id/index.php/component/content/article/86.

82 Ma'mur, Walikota Makassar.

83 Saduran, “Panjang Losari Jadi Lima Kilometer,” Makassar Terkini (online) (2009): 12 May; Pemkot 3 June 2008, 26 Dec. 2008, passim. See also Panyinkul!, an on-line magazine: http://www.panyingkul.com/view.php?id=498&jenis=citizenreporter.

84 Danny Pomanto, architect and town planner, commented, “Centre Point Indonesia will not just be the center of Indonesia, but will the middle, or center, of the whole world.” One structure, “The Equilibrium,” Should—if built—Symbolize Makassar's role as “a forerunner of Indonesian nationalism, Reformasi, and a new Indonesian civilization.” http://inart.wordpress.com/2009/07/07/anjungan-pantai-losari-dan-cpi-apakah-obsesi-pejabat-semata/ (accessed 14 Feb. 2010). My translation from the Indonesian.

85 “Toelichting op het Schets Detail Plan…,” Archives of the Makassar city government (Arsip Kotamadya Makassar), Makassar branch of the Indonesian National Archives (ANRI) document, 38.4. 5. My translation from the Dutch.

86 For an advocate's view, see: http://www..com/watch?v=qadyoutubec0rboPFQ; for images: http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=783562&page=2.

87 Pemkot, passim, particularly 27 July 2007, 11 June 2008, and 28 July 2008. On anti-Chinese accusations, see 22 Apr. 2008, 23 June 2008; Yasen, Karebosi. The site was to be exploited under a thirty-year lease.

88 “Karebosi masa depan=Produksi kapitalis?” https://deen10february.wordpress.com/2007/12/06/sedikit-curhat-ttg-karebosi/. Also see: http://asruldinazis.wordpress.com/2007/10/17/karebosi-produk-kapitalisme-masa-depan/. My translation from the Indonesian.

89 Ilham, Marwas, and Haniah, Biduk, 104–5.

90 Ibid., 175–76. All my translations from the Indonesian.

91 Yasen, Karebosi, 29; Pemkot 15 Dec. 2007.

92 Pemkot 25 Dec. 2007, and 10 June 2008. See also the poetry collection: Palisuri, Udhin, Karebosi: 400 Puisi Untuk Makassar (Makassar: Yayasan Karebosi, 2008)Google Scholar.

93 Yasen, Karebosi, 36, 40–44. For a news report, see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3nJ8E_TBhTM&feature=related.

94 Yasen, Karebosi, 81. My translation from the Indonesian. For an example of spirit possession at Karebosi, see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yK4GZUEiQmU&feature=related.

95 Yasen, Karebosi, 79–80.

96 Ibid., 81, see also 84. My translation from the Indonesian.

97 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4rtWEyfgHk.

98 http://www.mail-archive.com/[email protected]/msg12823.html; http://iriantosyahkasim.multiply.com/journal/item/340 (accessed 2/24/ 2010). See also Pemkot, and the Makassar newspaper Fajar on line, at www.fajar.co.id/koran, passim. For opinions of Ilham, see Idris Patarai, Ilham Arief Sirajuddin Di Mata Publik Makassar (Makassar: Hasanuddin University Press, 2007).

99 Google Earth historical images.

100 Appadurai, Modernity at Large, 206, 207, 215, 216.

101 Hayden, Compare Dolores, The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History (Cambridge Mass.: MIT, 1995), 8–9Google Scholar.

102 Verslag Van De Commissie Tot Bestudeering Van Staatsrechterlijke Hervormingen (Batavia: Landsdukkerij, 1942), vol. 2, 95Google Scholar. My translation from the Dutch.

103 Antweiler, Christoph, Urbane Rationalitat: Eine Stadethnologische Studie Zu Ujung Pandang (Makassar) Indonesien, Kolner Ethnologische Mitteilungen Band 12 (Koln: Dietrich Reimer, 2000)Google Scholar; Colombijn, Under Construction. In 1914, a Dutch official wrote that kampung ethnic names might suggest, “the various population elements are still grouped according to origins. However that is not the case!” H. T. Damsté, “Memorie Van Overgave Assistent Resident Van Makassar,” 1914, KITLV Leiden manuscripts, no. H 1084 (43).

104 Bayly, Birth of the Modern World, 478.

105 Suprapti, , ed., Perkampungan Di Perkotaan Sebagai Wujud Proses Adaptasi Sosial: Daerah Sulawesi Selatan (Jakarta: Departamen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1985), 18–19Google Scholar.

106 McTaggart, “Urban Policies,” 79.

107 Ibid.

108 Furnivall, Netherlands India, 446, 451, 467, 459.

109 Bahrum, Shaifuddin, Berubah: Metamorfosis Masyarakat Tionghoa Makassar Dalam 10 Tahun Reformasi (Makassar: Yayasan Baruga Indonesia, 2008)Google Scholar; Coppel, Indonesian Chinese.

110 http://makassarkota.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=36&Itemid=49 (accessed 7 Mar. 2010). This summary of Makassar's history reflects the city's “re-branding.” Morrell, Elizabeth, “Strengthening the Local in National Reform: A Cultural Approach to Political Change,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32, 3 (2001): 437–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Folk etymologies of place names are central to local history; see Paeni, Muchlis et al. , Sejarah Sosial Daerah Sulawesi Selatan Dan Mobilitas Kota Makasar, 1900–1950 (Ujung Pandang: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1984/1985)Google Scholar.

111 http://makassarkota.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=36&Itemid=49.

112 “Tempo Doeloe,” or “the good old days,” is a deliberately nostalgic term.

113 Fatimah, Murniati, and Rahmat, “Komunikasi”; Hendratmoko, ed., Amuk Makassar; Ilham, Marwas, and Haniah, Biduk, 121–22; Bahrum, Berubah, 23–26; Bahrum, Shaifuddin, Cina Peranakan Makassar: Pembauran Melalui Perkawinan Antarbudaya (Makassar: Yayasan Baruga Nusantara, 2003)Google Scholar, 78, n. 21. My translation from the Indonesian.

a Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen Map Colonial Map Collection, 09084, Amsterdam.

b Author's composite, drawn from data in McTaggart, “Urban Policies” and Titus, Determinants and Trends.