Article contents
Statistics and the Modern State
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 03 June 2009
Extract
“Lies, damned lies,” the possibly apocryphal comment of a British political leader on statistics about the unemployment consequences of his economic policy in the 1920s, sums up the impotent, frustrated acceptance of the ubiquitous presence of this tool of modern administration. We have slipped into living with statistics as we have with television or computers, even into accepting the assertions of value-free neutrality of its more brash exponents. The study of statistics is integral to the development of the modern state and modern society. Hence the relative paucity of studies of how statistics became what they are today is somewhat surprising, not least because its history offers insights into so many aspects of modern life, from the self-perception of society to the internal history of the exact and medical sciences, from the relationship between state and citizen to the social implications of the production of knowledge.
- Type
- The Reasonable State
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 1989
References
1 Koren, J., ed., The History of Statistics (Boston: American Statistical Association, 1918Google Scholar) is very external and limited to official statistics. Among the more useful and recent contributions, see Westergaard, H., Contributions to the History of Statistics (London: P. S. King, 1932Google Scholar); Institut National de la Statistique et Etudes Economiques, Pour une Histoire de la Statistique, Vol. I (Paris, s.d. but 1977)Google Scholar; Cullen, M. J., The Statistical Movement in Early Victorian Britain (Hassocks: Harvester Press, 1975Google Scholar); Rassem, M., ed., Statistik and Staatsbeschreibung in der Neuzeit, vornehmlich im 16–18 Jh. (Paderbom-Munchen-Wien-Zürich: Schoeningh Paderborn, 1980)Google Scholar; Perrot, J. C. and Woolf, S. J., State and Statistics in France 1789–1815 (Chur-LondonParis: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1984)Google Scholar; Romanelli, R., ed., “L'Indagine Sociale nell 'Unificazione Italiana,” Quaderni Storici, 45 (12, 1980).Google Scholar
2 Anderson, M., “The U.S. Bureau of the Census in the 19th Century” (Paper presented to the Wellcome Symposium on the History of Medicine: “The General Register Office in the 19th Century. A Comparative Perspective,” London, 27 11 1987).Google Scholar
3 Woolf, S. J., “Towards the History of the Origins of Statistics: France 1789–1815,” in Perrot and Woolf, State and Statistics, 82Google Scholar, 85; Hoock, J., “D'Aristote a Adam Smith: Quelques Etapes de la Statistique Allemande entre le XVIIe et le XIXe Siècle,” in Pour une Histoire, Vol. I, 477–92.Google Scholar
4 Sinclair, J., The Statistical Account of Scotland, 21 vols., Edinburgh, 1791–99, Vol. XX (1798), xiii.Google Scholar
5 Graunt, J., Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality (London, 1662)Google Scholar; Petty, W., Political Arithmetick (London, 1690)Google Scholar; King, G., Natural and Political Observations and Conclusions upon the State and Condition of England (London, 1696)Google Scholar. On the political arithmeticians, see Westergaard, Contributions, op. cit.; Condorcet, J. A. N. de, Essai sur l'Application de l'Anàlyse a la Probabilité des decisions rendues a la pluralite des voix (Paris, 1785Google Scholar). On Condorcet, see Baker, K. M., Condorcet, From Natural Philosophy to Social Mathematics (Chicago: University Press, 1975).Google Scholar
6 Woolf, , “Towards the History,” 83Google Scholar; Mackenzie, D. A., Statistics in Britain 1865–1930Google Scholar. The Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge (Edinborough: University Press, 1981), 7–9, 56–9Google Scholar; Meynard, C., “Trois Formes de Résistance aux Statistiques: Say, Cournot, Walras,” in Pour une Histoire, 422–3Google Scholar; Pitts, J. R., “Le Play, Frederic,” International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Vol. 9 (1968)Google Scholar; Pazzagli, C., “Statistica Investigatrice' e Scienze ‘Positive’ nell'Italia dei Primi Decenni Unitari,” Quaderni Storici, 45 (12, 1980), 799–83, 802–3, 807; A. Desrosières, “La Recherche en Histoire de la Statistique,” Courrier des Statistiques, no. 39 (1986), 54–8.Google Scholar
7 Woolf, , “Towards the History,” 83,Google Scholar 92–93; Pazzagli, , “Statistica ‘Investigatrice,’” 789–90.Google Scholar
8 Peuchet, J., Essai d'une Statistique Générale de la France (Paris, an IX [1800–1]), 3–4.Google Scholar
9 Say, J. B., “De l'Objet et de l'Utilité des Statistiques”, Revue Encyclopédique, 1827Google Scholar; Ferrara, F., Dubbi sulla Statistica (Palermo, 1835).Google Scholar
10 Bourguet, M.-N., Déchiffrer la France. La Statistique à l'Epoque Napoléonienne (thèse de doctorat de 3e cycle, Paris-I, 1983), 68–80; idem, “Dal Diverso all'Uniforme: le Pratiche Descrittive nella Statistica Dipartimentale Napoleonica,” Quaderni Storici, 55 (April, 1984).Google Scholar
11 Meynard, “Trois Formes.”
12 Leclerc, G., L' Observateur de l'Homme. Une Histoire des Enquêtes Sociales (Paris, 1979)Google Scholar; Cullen, The Statistical Movement; Elesh, D., “The Manchester Statistical Society: a Case Study of a Discontinuity in the History of Empirical Social Research,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 8:3 (1972)Google Scholar; M. Perrot, “Premieres Mesures de Faits Sociaux: les Debuts de la Statistique Criminelle en France (1787–1830),” Pour une Histoire; and J. Ozouf, “Les Statistiques de l'enseignement primaire au XIXe Siecle,” Pour une Histoire; Anderson, “The U.S. Bureau of the Census,” and Higgs, E., “The Census as a Medical Survey, 1841–1911” (both papers presented to the Wellcome Symposium on the History of Medicine: “The General Register Office in the 19th Century. A Comparative Perspective,” London, 27 11 1987).Google Scholar
13 Woolf, , “Towards the History,” 83–88Google Scholar; Leclerc, , L'Observateur, 40–5.Google Scholar
14 Jordanova, L. J., “Earth Science and Environmental Medicine: The Synthesis of the Late Enlightenment,” in Images of the Earth. Essays in the History of the Environmental Sciences, Jordanova, L. J. and Porter, R. S., eds. (Chalfont St. Giles: British Society for the History of Science, 1979).Google Scholar
15 Repeal, E., Dizionario Geografico-Fisico-Storico della Toscana …, 6 vols. (Firenze, 1833–1846)Google Scholar; Serristori, L., Statistica dell'Italia, 8 pts. (Firenze, 1835–1839)Google Scholar; Orlandini, A. Zuccagni, Corografia Fisica, Storica e Statistica dell'Italia e delle sue Isole, 12 vols (Firenze, 1835–1845)Google Scholar; Casalis, E., Dizionario Geografico-Storico-Statistico-Commerciale degli Stati di S. M. it Re di Sardegna, 28 vols (Torino, 1833–1856).Google Scholar
16 Hoock, , “D'Aristote à Adam Smith”, 485–87Google Scholar; Woolf, , “Towards the History,” 168–9, 86, 93Google Scholar; Faccini, L., “Karl Czoernig e la Statistica Agraria in Lombardia”, Società, e Storia, 3:10 (1980), 930–50Google Scholar; Pazzagli, , “Statistica Investigatrice,” 788–99; Perrot, “Premières Mesures;” Higgs, “The Census.”Google Scholar
17 Copans, J. et Junin, J., Aux Origines de l' Anthropologie Fran¸aise. Les Mémoires de la Société des Observateurs de l'Homme en l' An VIII (Paris: Le Sycomore, 1978)Google Scholar; Stocking, G. W., “French Anthropology in 1800,” Isis, 55 (1964)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Woolf, , “Towards the History,” 85.Google Scholar
18 Woolf, , “Towards the History,” 86–8, 94–8, 133–5, 166–7Google Scholar; Tassoni, G., Arti e Tradizioni Popolari. Le Inchieste Napoleoniche sui Costumi e le Tradizioni nel Regno Italico (Bellinzona: La Vesconta, 1973).Google Scholar
19 Woolf, , “Towards the History,” 85, 93Google Scholar; Leclerc, , L'Observateur, 40–5.Google Scholar
20 De Gérando, J. B., De la Bienfaisance Publique (Bruxelles, 1839)Google Scholar; Woolf, , “Toward the History,” 112–3Google Scholar; Woolf, S. J., The Poor of Western Europe in the 18th and 19th Centuries (London, 1986), 21, 36, 202.Google Scholar
21 Lawton, R., ed., The Census and Social Structure. An Interpretive Guide to Nineteenth Century Censuses for England and Wales (London: Cass, 1978)Google Scholar; Wrigley, E. A., ed., Nineteenth-Century Society. Essays in the Use of Quantitative Methods for the Study of Social Data (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Glass, D. V., Numbering the People. The Eighteenth Century Population Controversy and the Development of Censuses and Vital Statistics in Britain (London: Fairborough, Gregg International Publishers, 1973)Google Scholar; Brown, L., The Board of Trade and the Free-Trade Movement 1830–1842 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958); Cullen, The Statistical Movement.Google Scholar
22 Woolf, S. J., “Les Bases Sociales du Consulat. Un Mémoire d'Adrien Duquesnoy,” Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 31;4 (1984) 597–618.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23 Bonnin, C. J., Principles d'Administration Publique (Paris, 1809), Pt. 3, Vol. I, xiv.Google Scholar
24 Woolf, , “Towards the History,” passimGoogle Scholar; Bonnin, C. J., Principes d'Administration Publique (Paris, 1809)Google Scholar; Bourguet, , Déchiffrer la France, 1–2Google Scholar, 80–5, 282–4, 343–51, 550–5; Sofia, F., “La Statistica come Scienza Politica e dell'Amministrazione,” L'Amministrazione nella Storia Moderna, 2 vols. (Milano: Giuffré, 1985), 575–665.Google Scholar
25 Woolf, , “Towards the History,” passim (quotation, 163).Google Scholar
26 Pazzagli, “Statistica ‘Investigatrice:’”
27 Pazzagli, , “Statistica ‘Investigatrice,’” 796–9Google Scholar; Gambi, L., “Le Statistiche di un Prefetto del Regno,” Quaderni Storici, 45 (12, 1980), 823–66Google Scholar; Macry, P., “La Questione Scholastica: Controllo, Conoscenza, Consenso (1860–1872),” Quadreni Storici, 45 (12, 1980, 908; and cf. the Congressi degli Scienziati Italiani of the 1840s, especially the section on agriculture.Google Scholar
28 Gambi, , “Le Statistiche,” 834;Google ScholarWoolf, , “Towards the History,” 89–90.Google Scholar
29 Frascani, P., “Medicina e Statistica nella Formazione del Sistema Sanitario Italiano: l'Inthiesta del 1885,” Quaderni Storici, 45 (12, 1980), 952.Google Scholar
30 Romanelli, R., “La Nuova Italia e la Misurazione dei Fatti Sociali. Una Premessa,” Quaderni Storici, 45 (12, 1980), 765–78.Google Scholar
31 Merllié, D., “Les Catégories Socio-Professionnelles et les Conditions de leur Mise en Oeuvre,” Actes de la Recherche en Sciences Sociales, 50 (11, 1983), 3–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 47
- Cited by