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⁴ See below p. 260, n. 48.

⁵ A fascinating strand to follow in the evolution of communications would be to look into the seemingly spontaneous emergence among certain nineteenth-century Ottoman poets who were attached to old Ottoman ways, but were forced to live in a transitional era, of an overwhelming “angoisse”. This feeling takes the form of a morbid interest in the concept of void, emptiness, nothingness. Men such as İzzet Molla, Akif Paṣa and Ziya Paṣa in whose writings these signs of intellectual stress appear, then go on to build a highly personal philosophy in which the concept of “nothingness” is central and from which a concept of the existential nature of man emerges. This is an entirely new concept for the Ottoman world. See: Tanpinar, Ahmet Hamdixlxncu Asir Türk Edebiyatl Tarihi, 2nd ed. (Istanbul, 1955), pp. 46–47, 300.Google Scholar

⁶ For an example of the first approach see: Levend, Agâh Sirrci, Türk Dilinde Geliṣme ye Sadeleṣne Safhalari (Ankara, 1949)Google Scholar; for the second: Heyd, Uriel, Foundations of Turkish Nationalism (London, 1950).Google Scholar

⁷ Anhegger, Robert, “Hezarfen Hüseyin Efendi'nin Osmanli Devlet Teṣkilâtina dair mülâhazalari”, Türkiyat Mecmuasi, X (1953), 392. The word ümera denotes the members of the military-administrative class known also as the “wielders of the sword” (seyfiyye was the name used for this order as opposed to Ilmiyye for the Doctors of Islamic Law).Google Scholar

⁸ With the exception of training provided at the Palace School (Enderun Mektebi) which was also staffed by Ulema but controlled by the Palace.

⁹ Toderini, [J. B.], De la Littérature des Turcs, Trs. Cournand (Paris, 1789), II, p. 28Google Scholar. Cf. Hammer-Purgstall, Joseph von, Des Osmanischen Reichs Staatsverfassung und Staatsverwaltung (Vienna, 1815), II, pp. 403–4 for the accuracy of the above description.Google Scholar

¹⁰ See Çelebi, Kâtib, The Balance of Truth, Trs. and notes by Lewis, G. L. (London, 1957), p. 26Google Scholar; Gökyay, Orhan Ṣaik, “Kitip (sic) Celebi: Hayati, Sahsiyeti, Eserleri”, in Kâtip Çelebi: Hayai; Sahsiyeti, Eserleri. Hakklnda Incelemeler. Edited by Türk Tarih Kurumu (Ankara, 1957), p. 89, 182–83.Google Scholar

¹¹ Cevdet, Tarih, 2nd ed. (Istanbul, 1309 A. H. / 1893 A. D.), V, p. 107–108.

¹² Hammer, , Staatsverfassung …, II, pp. 102–175.Google Scholar

¹³ Ibid., I, pp. 31, 73–74. Gibb and Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, Part I, Vol. I, p. 197. Uzunçarslll, Ismaii Hakki, Osmanli Devletinin Merkez ve Bahriye Teskilâti (Ankara, 1948), p. 69.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Hammer, , Histoire de l'Empire Ottoman…, Paris, 1835–1843, xiv, p. 305. For Hammer's translation of hâce in the above sense as “chef de bureau” see Hammer, Staatsverfassung …, II, 111. For a description of the DivanGoogle Scholar, Ibid. II, pp. 412 ff.

¹⁵ Yöntmen, Ali Canib, “Sümbülzâde, Vehbi” Edebiyat Fakultesi Turk Dili ye Edebiyatl Dergisi, I (1946–1947), p. 83.Google Scholar

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¹⁷ Krenkow, F., “Sadj'”, Encyclopedia of Islam, IV, pp. 43–44.Google Scholar

¹⁸ [Sevük], Ismail Habib, Edebiyat Bilgileri (Istanbul, 1943), p. 289 f.Google Scholar

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²⁰ Tanpinar, , xlxncu Asi …, p. xviii.Google Scholar

²¹ [Gerçek], Selim Nilzhet, Türk Matbaacilligi (Istanbul, 1928), p. 40 f.Google Scholar

²² The dictionary was an adaptation by Mehmed Mustafa el-VanÎ of an abridgement by Abūbakr al-Rāzī (7th century A.H.) of the al-Siḥāb of CevherÎ ( died 1003 A.D.). The two other dictionaries available at this time were the AhterÎ (sixteenth century) and the Ferheng-i SuurÎ (mid seventeenth century). In 1723, shortly after the publication of VanÎ's dictionary (more widely known as Van Kulu from the name of its author), the former Seyhülislâm Esad Mehmed Efendi started to compile his own Turkish-Persian-Arabic dictionary, the Lehçet ül-lûgat. See Levend, Agah Sirri, Türk Dilinde GeliSme ve SadeleSme Safhalari, (Ankara, 1949), p. 173Google Scholar; Babinger, F., Stambuler Buchwesen im xviii. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1919), p. 11.Google Scholar

²³ Huart, Cl., “Kalem”, Islâm Ansiklopedisi, VI, p. 127.Google Scholar

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²⁷ Ziya Paşscedeil;a, “Siir ye InSa'”, Hürriyet, 7 September 1868.

²⁸ Çelebi, Kâtib, The Balance of Truth, p. 12. Babinger, Stambuler Buchwesen.… p. 23, note 1.Google Scholar

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³¹ For Rakim Efendi and his relations with the reformist Reisülküttab Ebubekir Ratib Efendi see: İnal, Ibnülemin Mahmud Kemal, Son Hattatlar (Istanbul, 1955), p. 269.Google Scholar For the Divan-I Hümayun Kalemi, Hammer, Staatsverfassung.… pp. 11, 109. For the scandal created by Efendi, Rakim: Ebüzziya Tevfik, “Rical-i Mensiye”, Mecmua-i Ebüzziya, xxi (1317 A.H./1899 A.D.), p. 438.Google Scholar

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³⁶ Kafiyā, Ibn al-Hadjīb's (Kafiye in Turkish). Babinger, Stambuler Buchwesen, p. 22.Google Scholar

³⁷ The lehçet ul-lügat. Babinger, Stambuler Buchwesen…, p. 24.

³⁸ These were known as the Nuhbe-i Vehbi and the Tuhfe-i Vehbi. Yöntmen, “Siimbillzade Vehbi,” p. 102. For the various editions: Fehmi Edhem Karatay, Istanbul üniversitesi Türkçe Basmalar Alfabe Katalogu (Istanbul, 1956), II, pp. 849–60.

³⁹ Hammer, , Histoire…, xiv, pp. 492–507.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ See: ülkütaSir, M. Sakir, “Mütercim âsim”, Türk Dili, I (1951), pp. 34–35.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Toderini, , De la littérature des Turcs, III, 105.Google Scholar

⁴² Lewis, Bernard, “The Impact of the French Revolution on Turkey: Some Notes on the Transmission of Ideas”, Journal of World History, I (1953), p. 121.Google Scholar

⁴³ Mehmed Esad, üss-ü afer, 1st edition (Istanbul 1243 A.H.), began 25 July 1827.

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⁴⁷ Sevük, Edebiyat Bilgileri, p. 291.

⁴⁸ al-Mustaṭraf fi kull Fann mustaẓraf. See C. van Arendonk, “al ”, Encyclopedia of Islam, II, p. 443; for Esad's preface: Köpülüzide Mehmed Fuad, Muill Edebiyat Cereyanlarinin İ1k MübeSSirleri ye Divan-i Türki-i Basit (Istanbul, 1928), p. 32.

⁴⁹ Köprülüzâde, , op.cit., p. 32.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Lûtfi, Ahmed, Tarih, IV, p. 84.Google Scholar

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⁵² See [Akif PaSa] Tabsira-i Akif PaSa (Istanbul, 1300 A.R./1883 A.D).

⁵³ Tanpinar, Ahmed Hamdi, xixncu Asir Türk Edebiyati…, p. 111, quoting from Cevdet PaSa's unpublished Tezakir.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ PaSa, Said, Gazeteci Lisani (Istanbul, 1328 A. H./1910 A. D.), p. 24.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ See Sungu, Ihsan, “Mekteb-i Maarif-i Adliyyenin Tesisi”, Tarih Vesikalari, I (1941), pp. 212–213. The institution was established in February 1839.Google Scholar

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⁵⁹ Ilm-i Tedbir-i Menzil (Istanbul, 1268 A.H./1851–52 A.D.).

⁶⁰ Southgate, Horatio, Narrative of a Journey through Armenia … (New York, 1840), I, p. 76.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Ergin, Osman, Türkiye Maarif Tarihi (Istanbul, 1939–1943), p. 301. This tradition of writing textbooks of grammar at the military school was continued with Abdullah Ramiz PaSa's Emsile-i Türki and by the first text of “lecture expliquee” to appear in the Ottoman Empire, Süleyman Hüsnü PaSa's Mebani ül-İnSa'; Süleyman PaSa was a graduate of one of ReSid PaSa's short-lived new “faculties”. See Süleyman PaSa Muhakemesi, edited by SüleymanpaSazâde Sami (Istanbul, 1911–1912), p. 24 f.Google Scholar

⁶² Yusuf Halts Efendi's Miftah ül-Lisan. See Karatay, , Türkçe Basmalar, I, p. 266Google Scholar; Hayreddin, , Vesaik-i Tarihiye ye Siyasiye (Istanbul, 1326 A.H./1910 A.D.), II, p. 65.Google Scholar

⁶³ Karatay, , Türkçe Basmalar, I, pp. 130–131. Thirteen editions were printed between 1851 and 1893–94.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Bianchi, , “Bibliographie Ottoman”, Journal Asiatique, Series V, XV 1(1860), p. 336.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Levend, , Türk DiliSme Gelisme., p. 121 f.Google Scholar

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⁶⁷ PaSa, Said, Gazeteci Lisant, p. 41 ff., p. 45.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Kaplan, Mehmet, Namik Kemal (Istanbul, 1948), p. 135Google Scholar. For biographical information see inal, Ibnülemin Mahmud Kemal, Son Asir Türk Sairleri (Istanbul, 1930–1942), pp. 1646–1648.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ “Not merely was it the first unofficial journal in Türkey [This is incorrect but the Tasvir-i Efkâr might as well have been the first journal in view of the limited popularity of its predecessors], it was the first utterance of the modern school… Here, for the first time, an Ottoman man of letters conversant with and appreciative of a great European language set out to reconstruct from its very foundations the whole edifice of Türkish literary style.” Gibb, , Ottoman Poetry, V, p. 26.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Tevfik, Ebüzziya, “Rical-i Mensiye”, Mecmua-i Ebüzziya, xix (1317 A.H./1899–1900 A.D.), p. 339Google Scholar; Tevfik, Ebüzziya, “Süleyman Nazif Beyefendiye”, Mecmua-i Ebüzziya, (1329 A.H./1911 A.D.), p. 579.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Mardin, Ebül'ülâ, Medent Hukuk Cephesinden Ahmet Cevdet PaSa (Istanbul, 1946), p. 10, note 8. Quoting from an unpublished portion of Cevdet's Tezâkir.Google Scholar

⁷² This debate has been published in pamphlet form: See Sinasi, ibrahim, Müntahabat-I Tasvir-i Efkâr: Mes'ele-yi Mebhuset-u Anha, ed. by Tevfik, Ebüzziya, 1st ed. (Istanbul, 1303 A.H./1885 A.D.).Google Scholar

⁷³ PaSa, Ziya, “Siir ve inSa'”, Hürriyet, 7 September, 1868, p. 4.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Suavi, Ali, reply to a reader, Muhbir, 27 Zilhicce, 1283–2 May, 1867, p. 1.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Kaplan, Mehmet, Namik Kemal (istanbul, 1948), p. 136.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Loc. cit.

⁷⁷ Bala, Mirza, “Feth-Ali”, Islâm Ansiklopedisi, IV (1947), pp. 577–80.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Tansel, F. A., “Arap harfierinin islahi ve degiSirilmesi hakkinda ilk teSebbüsler ve neticeleri”, Belleten, xvii (1953), pp. 234–37.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ By establishing in the 1860's as standard their own simple way of writing, the journalists had taken the initiative in the simplification movement out of the government's hands. The kitabet-i resmiye was thus bypassed and left to wallow in its fetid pool of circumlocutions. One result of this side-stepping was that even today, after years of strongly enforced linguistic reform during the time of Atatürk, official prose has remained quite rigid. In the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in particular, the changing of a comma into a semi-colon is still given the rapt attention of under-secretaries of state.

⁸⁰ For this dictionary, the Lehçe-i OsmanÎ, see Tanpinar, Ahmed Hamdi, “Ahmed Vefik PaSa”, Islâm Ansiklopedisi, I (1941), p. 209.Google Scholar

⁸¹ For a letter of Namik Kemal making fun of these activities of Vefik PaSa, see Pakalin, Mehmde Zeki, Ahmed Vefik PaSa (Istanbul, 1942), p. 135.Google Scholar

⁸² See Karatay, , Türkçe Basmalar …, I, p. 131Google Scholar. For Ziya PaSa's advice to go back to the “unspoilt” Türkish of the pre-Islamic era, see Ertaylan, Ismail Hikmet, Ziya PaSa (Istanbul, 1932), p. 150.Google Scholar

⁸³ Deutsch, , op. cit., p. 162.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Ibid.