¹ Latinoamérica: las ciudades y las ideas (Mexico: Siglo Veintiuno, 1976), 249.Google Scholar

² See Pinkey, David H., Napoleon III and the Rebuilding of Paris (Princeton: Princeton, 1958);Google ScholarChapman, J. M. and Chapman, Brian, The Life and Times of Baron Haussmann (London, 1957);Google Scholar and Benevolo, Leonard, The Origins of Modern Town Planning (Cambridge, MA, 1976).Google Scholar For a résumé of the Paris reforms, see Needell, Jeffrey D., “Making the Carioca Belle Epoque Concrete,” Journal of Urban History, 10:4 (08 1984), 391–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³ On the cultural hegemony of France in the Peninsula and Latin America, see Herr, Richard, The Eighteenth Century Revolution in Spain (Princeton: Princeton, 1958),Google Scholar chs. 3,6, passim; Marques, A. H. de Oliveira, History of Portugal, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia, 1972, 1976),Google ScholarPubMed I:ch.8, II:ch. Io, passim; Góngora, Mario, Studies in the Colonial History of Spanish America (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1975), cho5, passimGoogle Scholar; Franco, Jean, An Introduction to Spanish-American Literature (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1969)Google Scholar; Halperin-Donghi, Tulio, The Aftermath of Revolution in Latin America (New York: Harper and Row, 1973), ch.3, passimGoogle Scholar; Keen, Benjamin and Wasserman, Mark, A History of Latin America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988), ch.11, passimGoogle Scholar; Needell, Jeffrey D., A Tropical Belle Époque (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987)Google Scholar; on the role of England, see Donghi, Halperín, Aftermath, ch.2, passimGoogle Scholar; Safford, Frank, “Politics, Ideology and Society,”Google Scholar and Donghi, Tulio Halperín, “Economy and Society,” in Bethell, Leslie, ed., Cambridge History of Latin America, 5 vols. (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1985), v.3,Google Scholarpassim; Platt, D.C.M., Latin America and British Trade, 1806–1914 (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1973).Google Scholar

⁴ See Manchester, Alan K., British Prëminence in Brazil (Chapel Hill: Duke University Press, 1933):Google ScholarGraham, Richard, Britain and the Onset of Modernization in Brazil (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1972);Google ScholarFerrer, Aldo, The Argentina Economy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967),Google Scholar chs. 2,3 passim; Ford, A. G., “British Investment and Argentine Economic Development, 1880–1914,” in Rock, David, ed., Argentina in the Twentieth Century (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1975).Google Scholar

⁵ The best evocation of this milieu in Argentina is in McGann, Thomas F., Argentina, the United States, and the Inter-American System 1880–1914 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957),Google Scholar chs. 1–4; see, also, Quesada, Ernesto, “Introducción,” in Cané, Miguel, Notas e impresiones (Buenos Aires: Cultural Argentina, 1918),Google Scholarpassim; analysis of the Brazilian variant is in Needell's Tropical Belle Époque.Google Scholar

⁶ McGann, , Argentina, 51–52;Google Scholar one of the Argentines involved was Miguel Cané (see below); the Jockey Club in Paris dates from 1838, Rio's from 1868, and Buenos Aires's from 1881.

⁷ See Varela, Adrian Beccar, Torcuato de Alvear (Buenos Aires: G. Kraft, 1926);Google ScholarScobie, James R., Buenos Aires (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 109–11;Google Scholar cf. Charles Sargent, S., The Spatial Evolution of Greater Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1870–1930 (Tempe: CLAS Arizona, 1974), 31.Google Scholar

⁸ Maroni, José Juan, Breve historia física de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires, 1969), 55;Google ScholarVarela, Beccar, Torcuato de Alvear, 9–30. 49–131, 195–244, 287–98. 309–12,Google Scholarpassim; Martinez, Albert B., Baedeker of the Argentine Republic (Barcelona: R. Sopena, 1914), 157–8,Google Scholar map 2.; Scobie, Buenos Aires; Maroni, NB, Breve historica fisica, mentions Alvear's use of a French architect, one Courtois, in his work.Google Scholar

⁹ See Varela, Beccar, Torcuato de Alvear, 479–513.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Ibid., 479–92.

¹¹ On the Generation of 'Eighty, see Foster, David W., The Argentine Generation of 1880 (Columbia: Missouri, 1990);Google ScholarMcGann, , Argentina,Google Scholar chs. 1–4; Romero, José Luis, A History of Argentine Political Thought (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1963), 179–80;Google ScholarGroussac, Paul, Los que pasaban (Buenos Aires, 1939 [1919]):Google Scholar on Foster, Cané, Generation, 31–48;Google ScholarMcGann, , Argentina, 47–48;Google ScholarGálvez, Manuel, Recuerdos de la vida literaria, 2 vols. (Buenos Aires, 1961), I;Google Scholar ch.5, passim; Victoria, , “Prólogo,” in Caé, Miguel, En viaje, (Buenos Aires, 1949 [ca. 1883]),Google Scholar p. xxxvi; Astengo, Augustín Rivero, Hombres de la organización nacional (Buenos Aires, 1936), 163–4, 165, 169–70;Google ScholarHayes, Ricardo Sáenz, Miguel Cané y su tiempo (1851–1905) (Buenos Aires, 1954).Google Scholar

¹² See Mann, Mrs. Horace, “Biographical Sketch of the Author,” in Sarmiento, Domingo F., Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of the Tyrants (New York: Hafner-Macmillan, rpt. of 1868);Google ScholarRomero, , Argentine Political Thought, ch.5:184–5;Google ScholarRock, David, Argentina: 1516–1982 (Berkeley: California, 1985),Google Scholar ch.4, passim; McGann, , Argentina, 3–5, 34.Google Scholar

¹³ See Varela, Beccar, Torcuato de Alvear, 14–15. 49–50; the articles appeared in El Nacional, signed by “D”.Google Scholar

¹⁴ See Needell, Jeffrey D., “Marking the Carioca Belle Époque Concrete,” Journal of Urban History,” 10:4 (08 1984), 397–8, 400–3.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Ibid., and pp. 417–9. On Pereira Passos, see ibid., 383–4, 392, and, also, Needell, , Tropical Belle Époque, 82–83, 86, and passim.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Passos, Francisco Pereira, Jardim, Jeronymo Rodrigues de Moraes, e Silva, Marcellino Ramos da, Primeiro relatorio da Commissāo de Melhoramentos da cidade do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1875),Google Scholar and, especially, Segundo relatorio… (Rio de Janeiro, 1876).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Needell, , “Carioca Belle Époque,” 398, 414. Auguste Mane Francois Glaziou (1833–1906), favored by the Brazilian emperor, had already worked on various imperial landscaping projects before this.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Ibid., 400–3, 417–9.

¹⁹ Ibid., Needell, , Tropical Belle Époque, 36–45;Google Scholarnota bene, as in the case of Buenos Aires, not only Francophile engineers and planners were involved, but Frenchmen, especially in the architecture.

²⁰ See Banos, Joao de, “Chronica,” Renascenca, I (06 1904), 124;Google ScholarLopes, Thomaz, “Buenos Aires,” Kosmos, 5:3–4 (03–04, 08 1908), passim.Google Scholar

²¹ Pereira Passos was compared to Haussmann most famously by José Maria da Silva Paranhos (Júnior), baron do Rio Branco, the celebrated contemporary minister for foreign affairs (see Athayde, Raymundo A. de, Pereira Passos [Rio de Janeiro: A Noite, n.d.], 297);Google Scholar the comparison between Buenos Aires and Paris is noted in both Sargent, , Greater Buenos Aires, 89,Google Scholar 119 and Scobie, , Buenos Aires, 111, 113, 130. Sargent (p. 119–20) disputes the comparison on urbanistic grounds that could apply equally well to Rio.Google Scholar

²² For Cané and his representative quality, see note 11 above. Most of his books are collections of essays initially written at home or abroad for publication in porteno periodicals; see, for example, Notas y impressiones, En viaje, and Discursos y conferencias. For the general material determinism of Cané's generation, see Ibarguren, Carlos, La historia que he vivido (Buenos Aires, 1955), 69, 201.Google Scholar

²³ On the general European milieu, see Hughes, H. Stuart, Consciousness and Society (New York: Random, 1958), pp. 31–32, 37–41;Google Scholar on much of its origins, see Charlton, D. G., Positivist Thought in France During the Second Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959), chs. 2,3,6,7, and pp. 190–99;Google ScholarDigeon, Claude, La crise allemande de la pensée française (1870–1914), (Paris: Presses Université de France, 1959),Google Scholar chs. 4,5; on Latin America's rendition, see Zea, Leopoldo, Positivism in Mexico (Austin: Texas, 1974)Google Scholar and ḣis Latin American Mind (Norman: Oklahoma, 1963);Google Scholar and, especially, Hale, Charles, “Political and Social Thought,” in Bethell, Leslie, ed., Cambridge History, v.5,Google Scholar and Hale's, The Transformation of Liberalism in Late Nineteenth-Century Mexico (Princeton: Princeton, 1989).Google Scholar

²⁴ See Cané, , Discursos y conferencias, 48–49;Google ScholarEn viaje, 6–7, 9–10, 11–12, 13, 16, 258, 275; Notas y impressiones, 37–39, 41; Prosa ligera, 171. The comparison with Central America is Roque Sáenz Pena's, later president of Argentina, and was made in a diplomatic speech; on this and general elite assumptions in this regard, see Groussac, , Los que passaban, 374–5, 383–5;Google Scholar Groussac is quoted in Mérou, Martín García, “Introducción,”Google Scholar in Cané, , Prosa ligera, 17–18,Google Scholar and compare Ibarguren, La historia, pp. 92–93 and chs. viii and ix, passim. Paul Groussac, it should be noted, was a Frenchman who apparently attached himself to the Generation of 'Eighty as a kind of cultural and historical publicist.

²⁵ See McGann, , Argentina,Google Scholar ch. 4, passim and the correspondence cited in Varela, Beccar, Torcuato de Alvear, for example, 491–2, 506–13;Google Scholar see also the Scobie, Sargent, and Maroni citations in note 21, above. The reference to Buenos Aires as a great village derives from the novel by López, Lucio V., La gran aldea (Buenos Aires, 1882), a lament for the passing of traditional Buenos Aires which was dedicated to Miguel Caé, an old family friend. López was a member of the Generation of ‘Eighty and his father, like Cané's, was a member of the Generation of’Thirty Seven.Google Scholar

²⁶ See, for example, Notas y impressiones, 52–53, 99, 100–3; En viaje, 46, 48–50, 62–63,

²⁷ Notas y impressiones, 235–44 and citations in Hayes, Sáenz, Miguel Cané, 493–5.Google Scholar

²⁸ Miguel Cané to Torquato de Alvear, Buenos Aires, 7 June 1883, quoted in Varela, Beccar, Torquato de Alvear, 480.Google Scholar

²⁹ Miquel Cané to Torcuato de Alvear, Vienna, 14 January 1885, quoted in Varela, Beccar, Torquato de Alvear, 481–82.Google Scholar

³⁰ Ibid., 483–92.

³¹ Cane, , Notas e impressiones, 54.Google Scholar

³² Martinez, , Baedeker, 157–9.Google Scholar

³³ Huret, Jules, De Buenos Aires al Gran Chaco (Paris: Fasquelle, n.d.), 44, 45.Google Scholar

³⁴ Koebel, W. H., Modern Argentina (London: Francis Grffiths, 1907), 38, 39–40, 55.Google Scholar

³⁵ Hirst, W. A., Argentina (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912), 142–3, 146.Google Scholar

³⁶ Quoted, in La Nación, 8 May 1883,Google Scholar quoted in Varela, Beccar, Torquato de Alvear, 552.Google Scholar

³⁷ Cané to Alvear, Vienna, 14 January 1885, quoted in Varela, Beccar, Torquato de Alvear, 481.Google Scholar

³⁸ Sansón Carrasco, Montevideo, 9 June [1885?[Aurelio Barreto] Nabuco [de Araújo], Um estadista do imperio, 3 vols. (Rio de Janeiro: Gamier, 1899), III:202–68, 364–438,Google Scholarpassim; Needell, , Tropical Belle Époque, 31;Google ScholarBarman, Roderick J., “The Brazilian Peasantry Reexamined,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 57:3 (08 1977), 411–2, 414–5, 422–3;CrossRefGoogle Scholar cf. Graham, Richard, “Brazil after Indepen dence,” in Bethell, Leslie, ed., Cambridge History, IV:792.Google Scholar The reforms were undertaken by the administration of José Maria da Silva Paranhos, viscount do Rio Branco; the most famous reform, the Law of the Free Womb (1871), attacked slavery.

⁴¹ Needell, , “Carioca Belle Epoque,” 398–400.Google Scholar

⁴² On Brazilian elite divisions, consensus, and the reforms, see Needell, , Tropical Belle Epoque, 1–22;Google ScholarNeedell, Jeffrey D., “The Revolta Contra Vacina,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 67:2 (05 1987), 241–9;Google ScholarPubMedLove, Joseph L., Rio Grande do Sul and Brazilian Regionalism 1882–1930 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1971)Google Scholar and his Sāo Paulo in the Brazilian Federation, 1889–1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980);Google Scholar the companion studies of Levine, Robert M. and Wirth, John D. and Franco, Afonso Arinos de Melo, Rodriques Alves, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro: Jose Olympio, 1973).Google Scholar On Argentina's elite unity, see McGann, , Argentina, chs. 1,3;Google ScholarRock, , Argentina 1516–1982, 120–31, 183–91.Google Scholarpassim;and Richmond, Douglas W., Carlos Pellegrini and the Crisis of the Argentine Elites, 1880–1916 (New York: Praeger, 1989).Google Scholar

⁴³ See Needell, Jeffrey D., “Rio de Janeiro at the Turn of the Century,” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 25:1 (08 1984), 91–93;Google ScholarNeedell, , Tropical Belle Epoque, 5, 6, 20–21, 182–3, 198–9.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Needell, , “Carioca Belle Époque,” 397,Google Scholar and the correspondence cited in notes 30 and 31 (p. 414) and note 32 (p. 416), passim. On Pereira Passos' appointment in 1902, see the sources cited there in note 34 (p. 416).

⁴⁵ Quoted in Edmundo, Luis [da Costa], O Rio de Janeiro do meu tempo, 5 vols. (Rio de Janeiro: Conquista, 1957), I.25.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ See Franco, Melo, Rodrigues Alves, especially Vol. I, passim.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Ibid. I:73–166, 168–71. 190–1, 307–12; and the other sources cited in Needell, , “Carioca Belle Epoque,” note 34 (p. 416).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Quoted in “Banquete,” Jornal do Comercio, 24 10 1901, p. 2.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ See Franco, Melo, Rodrigues Alves, vol. 1:324.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ See Pontes, Eloy, A vida exuberante de Olavo Bilac, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro: José Olympio, 1944)Google Scholar and Needell, , Tropical Belle Époque, 48–49. 190. 200–3, 224.Google Scholar

⁵¹ “Chronica,” Kósmos, I (03 1904), 2.Google Scholar

⁵² Quoted in Edmundo, Luis [da Costa], De um livro de memórias, 5 vols. (Rio de Janeiro: Nacional, 1958), I:162.Google Scholar

⁵³ Quoted in Broca, Brito, A vida literária—1900 (Rio de Janeiro: José Olympio, 1975), 4.Google Scholar This celebrated phrase caught the imagination of contemporaries, not least because Figueiredo Pimentel, a very powerful fashion columnist, commanded widespread elite attention (see Needell, , Tropical Belle Époque, 126–7, 169–70, 210).Google Scholar

⁵⁴ See Ibid., 36–51.

⁵⁵ Carvalho, J. C. de Mariz, “Pulcherrima Rerum,” Kósmos, I (09 1904), 4.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ “A Avenida Central,” Rua do Ouvidor, 20 09 1904, I.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Costa, , De um livro de memórias, I:162–3.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ See, for example, Adam, Paul, Les visages du Brésil (Paris: Pierre Lafitte, 1914);Google ScholarBell, Alured Gray, The Beautiful Rio de Janeiro (London: William Heinemann, 1914);Google ScholarBurnichon, Joseph, S. J, ., Le Brésil au pays de l'or et des diamants (Paris: Aillaud, Alves, 1910);Google ScholarLloyd, Reginald, dir., Impressões do Brazil no seculo vinte (London: Lloyd's Greater Britain, 1913).Google Scholar

⁵⁹ We have seen the porteno response above; for more of the Carioca, see Needell, , “Carioca Belle Époque,” 403–10, passim.Google Scholar Note especially that more sensitive contemporaries were uneasy with these Europhile metamorphoses: Men of letters, in particular, registered both critical distance and nostalgia. See, for example, for Aires, Buenos, Grandmontagne, Francisco, Teodoro Foronda (1896);Google ScholarLopez's, La Gran aldea (cited earlier);Google Scholar or Martel, Julián [pseudonym for Miro, José Maria], La bolsa (1891).Google Scholar For Rio, see Needell, , “Rio de Janeiro,” 94–97,Google Scholar and some of the essays in Rio's, Joāo doPsychologia urbana (1911)Google Scholar or Vida vertiginosa (1911), or [Afonso Henriques de] Barreto's, LimaMorte e vida de M. J. Gonzaga de Sá (1919), and so forth.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ For the Argentine case, see Sargent, , Greater Buenos Aires, 21–25, 89, 120;Google ScholarScobie, , Buenos Aires, 110–22, 125–350Google Scholar For the Brazilian, , Needell, Tropical Belle Époque, 26, 36–45, 151–3.Google Scholar

⁶¹ For Buenos Aires, see Scobie, , Buenos Aires, 114–135;Google ScholarSargent, , Greater Buenos Aires, 23–25, 79–82;Google Scholar for Rio, Needell, , Tropical Belle Époque, 23, 26, 141–3, 151–3. Note especially that Scobie refers to the Neo-Classical as “Italianesque,” pointing to the importance of Italians in the decoration of elite housing of the mid-nineteenth century. My own research indicates that, whether carried out by Italians or no (and, in Rio, just as in Buenos Aires, it often was), the style derived from Paris's École des Beaux-Arts.Google Scholar

⁶² See Scobie, , Buenos Aires, and ch. 3,Google Scholarpassim; Sargent, , Greater Buenos Aires, 21–25; for the elite's political travails, see chapter 3 in Scobie's Buenos Aires and the McGann, Richard, and Rock citations in note 42 above.Google Scholar

⁶³ See Needell, , Tropical Belle Époque, 19–22, chs. 2,3 especially 117–24, 151–3. Note especially that the intra-elite differences observed earlier turned on regional conflicts and the nature of the national government's role–the Carioca elite, unlike the porteno, did not participate in these struggles so much as it functioned as the post-consensus, consecrated circle of those who triumphed in such conflicts.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ Ibid., 22–26, 151–3.

⁶⁵ For Buenos Aires, see Sargent, , Greater Buenos Aires, 31–33, 65, 82, 83, 85–89;Google ScholarScobie, , Buenos Aires, 135–59.Google Scholar For Rio, see Needell, , “Revolta Contra Vacina,” 249–62Google Scholar and, on disease among the Carioca poor, Adamo, Samuel, “The Broken Promise” (Ph.D. disser., History Department, University of New Mexico, 1983),Google Scholar ch.4, and Costa, Nilson do Rosário, “Estado e politicas de saude pública (1889–1930)” (M. A. thesis, Instituto Universitá do de Pesquisas do Rio de Janeiro, 1983).Google Scholar Note especially that, to the credit of both Alvear and Pereira Passos, each attempted to carry out rational systems of housing reform and construction to benefit the poor, neither, however, was able to arrange for sufficient backing to make an effective difference. The need for drastic solutions to demographic problems is clear in the population figures. The population of Buenos Aires increased more than sixfold in just 40 years, growing from 1870, to (1870) to 547,000 (1890) to 1,314,000 (1910): the population of Rio increased over threefold in 36 years from 235,000 (1870) to 523,000 (1890) to 811,000 (1906). My sources are Sargent, , Greater Buenos Aires, 120;Google ScholarNeedell, , Tropical Belle Époque, 241.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Needell, , “Revolta Contra Vacina”;Google ScholarNeedell, , “Carioca Belle Époque,” 406–10.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ Scobie, , Buenos Aires, 135–59Google Scholar and ch. 5, passim; Sargent, , Greater Buenos Aires.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Scobie, , Buenos Aires, 114–5. 146–8;Google ScholarNeedell, , Tropical Belle Époque, 152–3;Google ScholarNeedell, , “Revolta Contra Vacina,” 252–2.Google Scholar