I would like to thank Roger Cooter, Christopher Friedrichs, and Ludmilla Jordanova for their helpful comments and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for its financial assistance.

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⁵ Boas, George, French Philosophers of the Romantic Period (New York, 1964Google Scholar. It is, of course, a gross simplification to contrast a philosophical psychology of the eighteenth century to a biological psychology of the nineteenth century. Ideologic for example, shared with phrenology strong connections with medicine and was used even earlier as a basis for rationalizations of policy. See Stocking, George W., Race, Culture and Evolution (New York, 1968).Google Scholar

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⁴⁰ On the 1844 debates, see Moniteur universel, April-May 1844Google Scholar; and on Bouillaud, the Bulletin de l'Académie de Médecine, 7 (26 10 1841).Google Scholar

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⁵² P. H. Frère and Armand Harembert drifted into magnetism, Henri Scoutten into electricity, E. A. Boisseuil and Theodore Labbey into homeopathy.

⁵³ Edouard Seguin, who opened the first school for idiots in France, commented that though Gall was short-sighted in his analysis of mental problems, his denigrators were scarcely more gifted: “The authors who succeeded him: Georget, Esquirol, Lélut, Foville, Calmeil, Leuret, Pritchard, seem to have studied idiocy only to use its phenomena for the destruction of Gall's system, but not for the benefit of the poor idiots, whom they declared incurable”. Seguin's sympathy was no doubt sparked by his own interest in Saint-Simonian reformist policies. See Lane, , Wild Boy, 296.Google Scholar

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