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Ottoman Infrastructures of the Saudi Hydro-State: The Technopolitics of Pilgrimage and Potable Water in the Hijaz

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 October 2015

Michael Christopher Low
Michael Christopher Low*
Affiliation:
Department of History, Iowa State University
*
[email protected]
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Abstract

The provisioning of potable water was a microcosm of the Ottoman state's incomplete projects of technopolitical modernization on the Arab frontier. Water questions sat at the intersection between international pressures surrounding cholera, drought, Wahhabi and Bedouin disorder, and the inability of the state to impose its will on the semi-autonomous Amirate of Mecca. To be sure, Ottoman public health reforms and increased attention to water infrastructure were partly a product of the intense international attention generated by the hajj's role in the globalization of cholera. However, like other projects with more overt military and strategic implications, most notably the Hijaz telegraph and railway, the Ottoman state also saw an opportunity to harness the increasing medicalization of the hajj to serve a broader set of efforts to consolidate the empire's most vulnerable frontier provinces. Through the lens of the technopolitical frontier this essay seeks to tell a larger story about the evolution of state building and development in Arabia, one that would otherwise be obscured without reference to both its late Ottoman and Saudi histories. By viewing the evolution of hydraulic management in the Hijaz as a continuous process unfolding across the long nineteenth century, we gain a new perspective on the role that Ottoman technopolitics played in shaping the Saudi state that eventually succeeded it. We find that the quest for water security in the Hijaz, particularly in Jidda, played a critical role in setting the stage for the discovery of the Saudi Arabia's massive petroleum reserves.

Type
Research Article
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 57 , Issue 4 , October 2015 , pp. 942 - 974
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 2015 

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43 Eyüp Sabri Paşa, Mirat ül-Haremeyn (İstanbul: Bahriye Matbaası, 1301–1306/1883–1888).

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47 Eyüp Sabri Paşa, Mirat ül-Haremeyn, vol. 1, 748–50. Johann Ludwig Burckhardt's account of his three-month sojourn in the Hijaz in 1814–1815 confirms Eyüp Sabri's claim that the damage to the waterworks was not merely a product of neglect, but a direct result of the Wahhabis' intentional cutting of Mecca's water supply. See Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia, vol. 1 (London: Henry Colburn, 1829), 194–95.

48 BOA, HAT, 344/19624 (29 Z 1232/9 Nov. 1817).

49 Eyüp Sabri Paşa, Tarih-i Vehhabiyan (İstanbul: Kırk Ambar Matbaası, 1296/1879); repr., edited by Süleyman Çelik (İstanbul: Bedir Yayınevi, 1992), 62.

50 BOA, HAT, 1359/53403 (29 Z 1220/20 Mar. 1806).

51 Eyüp Sabri Paşa, Mirat ül-Haremeyn, vol. 1, 748–53. Eyüp Sabri somewhat exaggerates the level of neglect. Ottoman authorities did carry out a number of repairs between the 1840s and 1860s. See Ömer Faruk Yılmaz, Belgelerle Osmanlı Devrinde Hicaz, vol. 1 (İstanbul: Çamlıca, 2008), 145, 172–73, 188–89; ‘Adil Muhammad Nur ‘Abd Allah Ghubashi, al-Munsha'at al-Ma'iyya li-Khidmat Makka al-Mukarrama wa-l-Masha‘ir al-Muqaddasa fi-l-‘Asr al-‘Uthmani: Dirasa Hadariyya (Makka: Wizarat al-Ta‘lim al-‘Ali, Jami‘at Umm al-Qura, 2005), 227–32.

52 For example, in 1861 Mecca experienced its most “disastrous flood” (sel felaketi) of the century, which destroyed hundreds of homes and left the Haram and the city's water system filled with debris. BOA, İ. DH, 486/32805 (19 Ş 1278/19 Feb. 1862); BOA, A. MKT. UM, 548/17 (14 N 1278/15 Mar. 1862); BOA, A. MKT. NZD, 407/65 (17 N 1278/18 Mar. 1862).

53 John F. Keane, Six Months in Mecca: An Account of the Muhammedan Pilgrimage to Mecca (London: Tinsley Brothers, 1881), 176–86.

54 Eyüp Sabri Paşa, Mirat ül-Haremeyn, vol. 1, 748–51.

55 BOA, Y. PRK. UM, 5/96 (30 Ca 1300/8 Apr. 1883).

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76 Sarıyıldız and Kavak, Halife II, 62–64.

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81 BOA, BEO, 571/42805 (21 Ş 1312/17 Feb. 1895); BOA, BEO, 577/42360 (29 Ş 1312/25 Feb. 1895).

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86 Jones, Desert Kingdom, 7–8, 15–16.

87 Ibid., 13–15.

88 Hecht, Radiance of France, 15–17.

89 Arun Agrawal, Environmentality: Technologies of Government and the Making of Subjects (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), 8.

90 Jones, Desert Kingdom, 10. See also Michel Foucault, Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977–1978, Michel Senellart, ed. (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2004).

91 Jones, Desert Kingdom, 32.

92 For annual oil revenues, see Alexei Vassiliev, The History of Saudi Arabia (London: Saqi Press, 1998), 401.

93 In 1932, the hajj accounted for 60 percent of government revenue. Mai Yamani, Cradle of Islam: The Hijaz and the Quest for Identity in Saudi Arabia (London: I. B. Tauris, 2009), 54.

94 Jones, Desert Kingdom, 9–10; Kiren Aziz Chaudhry, The Price of Wealth: Economies and Institutions in the Middle East (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), 59.

95 David Edwin Long, The Hajj Today: A Survey of the Contemporary Makkah Pilgrimage (Albany: State University of New York, 1979), 72–79.

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99 TNA: FO 371/16876, in Anita L. P. Burdett, ed., Water Resources in the Arabian Peninsula, 1921–1960, vol. 1 (Slough, UK: Archive Editions, 1998), 695–96.

100 Pampanini, Desalinated Water, 3–4.

101 al-Ansari, History of Aziziah Water Supply, 15–16.

102 Ibid., 54–55, 156–60.

103 Karl S. Twitchell Papers, 1911–1967, Public Policy Papers, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library, ser. 1, box 3, fol. 8.

104 Karl S. Twitchell, Saudi Arabia: With an Account of the Development of Its Natural Resources (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947), 139–40.

105 Ibid., 140–41.

106 Sarıyıldız, Hicaz Karantina, 142.

107 Twitchell, Saudi Arabia, 140–41.

108 Twitchell Papers, ser. 4, box 27, fol. 3.

109 Twitchell, Saudi Arabia, 35.

110 TNA: FO 371/16875; FO 371/16876, in Burdett, Water Resources, 692–97.

111 Twitchell Papers, ser. 1, box 3, fol. 8. On the kingdom's growing debt, see also Vassiliev, History of Saudi Arabia, 312.

112 Ibid., ser. 4, box 27, fol. 3.

113 On the history of Aramco, see Robert Vitalis, America's Kingdom: Mythmaking on the Sauid Oil Frontier (New York: Verso, 2009).

114 Toby C. Jones, “State of Nature: The Politics of Water in the Making of Saudi Arabia,” in Alan Mikhail, ed., Water on Sand: Environmental Histories of the Middle East and North Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 239–40.

115 Report of the United States Agricultural Mission to Saudi Arabia (Cairo: Misr Press, 1943), 112–16.

116 al-Ansari, History of the Aziziah water supply, 75–76; TNA: FO 371/62088, in Burdett, Water Resources, 726–27.

117 Mitchell, Carbon Democracy, 103.

118 Jones, Desert Kingdom, 3.

119 Pampanini, Desalinated Water, 10–11.

120 Mitchell, Carbon Democracy, 40.

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122 Mitchell, Carbon Democracy, 1–2; Fernando Coronil, The Magical State: Nature, Money and Modernity in Venezuela (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 5–6.

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124 Hassan H. Shawly, “Urban Water: Integrated Resource Planning to Meet Demand in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia,” (PhD diss., Stuttgart University, 2007), 154–55.

125 Mitchell, Rule of Experts, 42–43.