¹ Occasionally, nationalism of the majority may be spurred by the mere presence of an unassimilable minority, especially if it is large or influential.

² Such examples as Italian Fascism or German National Socialism readily suggest themselves, but even in these cases nationalism was only one of the important ideological ingredients. For an interesting discussion of the difficulties which a genuine nationalist movement may encounter in a country ruled by a quasi-nationalist autocracy see Rogger, H., “Nationalism and the State: A Russian Dilemma”, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. IV, pp. 253–264.Google Scholar

³ , K. and Lang, G.E., Collective Dynamics (New York, 1961), p. 490.Google Scholar Italics are ours.

⁴ Much was made by some historians of the predominantly cultural nature of early nationalism in Central and Eastern Europe, but even such typical cultural nationalists of the pre-Napoleonic Germany as Herder deplored their nation's political disunity and divisions. Cf. Ergang, R.R., Herder and the Foundations of German Nationalism (New York, 1931).Google Scholar

⁵ Only exceptionally may they attract some idealists from the other side who may recognize that the demands of the nationalists are morally justified.

⁶ The war and the peace treaties produced a large number of books on nationalism, both in England and in the United States, but the credit for initiation of systematic investigations of national movements in various European countries belongs to Carlton Hayes, J.H. and his pioneering volumes, Essays in Nationalism (New York, 1926)Google Scholar and The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism (New York, 1931).Google Scholar

⁷ For bibliography of works on nationalism, see Pinson, K.S., A Bibliographical Introduction to Nationalism (New York, 1935);Google ScholarDeutsch, K.W., An Interdisciplinary Bibliography on Nationalism, 1935–1953 (Cambridge, Mass., 1956)Google Scholar and Shafer, B.C., Nationalism: Interpreters and Interpretations (New York, 1959Google Scholarand 1963).

⁸ Cf. Kohn, H., A History of Nationalism in the East (New York, 1929).Google Scholar

⁹ Cf. Emerson, R., From Empire to Nation: The Rise to Self-Assertion of Asian and African Peoples (Cambridge, Mass., 1960);CrossRefGoogle ScholarAlmond, G.A. and Coleman, J.S., eds., The Politics of the Developing Areas (Princeton, 1960);Google ScholarSilvert, K.H., ed., Expectant Peoples: Nationalism and Development (New York, 1963);Google Scholar and Deutsch, K.W. and Foltz, W.J., eds., Nation-Building (New York, 1963).Google Scholar

¹⁰ Hayes, C.J.H., “Two Varieties of Nationalism, Original and Derived”, Proceedings of the Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland, XXVI (1928), pp. 70–83.Google Scholar

¹¹ Kohn, H., The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York, 1944)Google Scholar and elsewhere. Cf. also Snyder, L.L., The Meaning of Nationalism (New Brunswick, N.J., 1954),Google Scholar Chapter V.

¹² Hayes, loc. cit., pp. 73–74. Similar distinctions were made also by other students of nationalism, e.g., M. H. Boehm in his “Nationalism”, Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, XI, 231. Some scholars, yielding to the growing tendency to identify nationalism with its more common and more virulent contemporary variety, have suggested that the use of the term be limited to this variety and that the more humanitarian forms of nationalism be described as national consciousness. However, this would hardly be a terminological improvement.

¹³ Kohn, op. cit., pp. 329–330.

¹⁴ A similar tendency to clean the record of truly “Western” nationalism of any “tribal” impurities is shown by Arendt, H. in The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York, 1951).Google Scholar

¹⁵ He was chided for this by H. Gerth in his review of The Idea of Nationalism in the American Journal of Sociology, LI, 341.

¹⁶ Cf. Hayes, The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism.

¹⁷ Cf. Clarkson, J.D., “ ’Big Jim' Larkin: A Footnote to Nationalism”, Nationalism and Internationalism, ed. by Earle, E.M. (New York, 1950), pp. 45–63.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Heberle, R., Social Movements (New York, 1951),Google Scholar Ch. I.

¹⁹ Although the existence or non-existence of some “nations” represented by particular nationalist movements was sometimes argued about.

²⁰ E.g., Hodgkin, T. in his Nationalism in Colonial Africa (New York, 1957).Google Scholar

²¹ Cf. R. Emerson, From Empire to Nation. Coleman, J.S. applies to both the term “nationalism” but distinguishes between its traditional and modern forms. Cf. his Nigeria: Background to Nationalism (Berkeley, 1963).Google Scholar

²² For a general view of various reactions to conquest cf. Toynbee, A., The World and the West (New York, 1953).Google Scholar

²³ Wirth, L., “Types of Nationalism”, American Journal of Sociology, XLI (1936), 723–737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar This article was recently reprinted in the Bobbs-Merrill reprint series.

²⁴ Wirth, L., “The Problem of Minority Groups”, The Science of Man in the World Crisis, ed. by Linton, R. (New York, 1945).Google Scholar This article was recently reprinted in Theories of Society, ed. by Parsons, T.Google Scholar and others.

²⁵ Wirth mentions also the fourth orientation found among some minority groups, namely the desire to be completely assimilated to the dominant group, but since this orientation, if adopted by the whole group and accepted as desirable by the dominant majority, would eventually lead to the disappearance of a given minority, it cannot be considered a minority “movement” in the same sense of the term as the other three. It is also an extremely rare phenomenon, if considered in reference to whole minority groups, not just individuals, but it does occur. An example of such a minority group which is not interested in preserving its distinct identity is the American Negroes.

²⁶ Wirth, The American Journal of Sociology, XLI, 725.

²⁷ Following in part F. Znaniecki and in part R. M. Maclver.

²⁸ I have attempted to discuss some of the problems of such an approach to nationalism in my paper “Nationalism Considered as a Social Movement” presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Sociological Society in Milwaukee (1963).

²⁹ I am not concerned at this point with the nature of the state in which one or the other solution is possible.

³⁰ Cf. R. Emerson, From Empire to Nation, p. 95 and passim.

³¹ Cf. Linton, R., “Nativistic Movements”, The American Anthropologist, XLV (1943), 230–240;CrossRefGoogle Scholar A.F.C. Wallace, “Revitalization Movements ”, Ibid., LVIII (1956), 264–281; Worsley, P.M., “Millenarian Movements in Melanesia”, The Rhodes-Livingston Journal, XXI (03, 1957), 18–31;Google ScholarBarber, B., “Acculturation and Messianic Movements”, American Sociological Review, VI (1941), 663–669.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Cf. also Millennial Dreams in Action, ed. by Thrupp, S.L., The Hague, 1962)Google Scholar and The Pursuit of the Millennium by Cohn, N. (New York, 1961).Google Scholar

³² Is seems inadvisable to include among the varieties of nationalist movements another category which is frequently distinguished, especially by students of African developments, namely regional or pan-continental “nationalisms”. Pan-movements, when not the instruments of the policy of some aggressive power (as was the case with Pan-Germanism or Pan-Slavism), are usually to be considered a way of bolstering the nationalisms developing among a number of related weaker nationalities which on their own could hardly hope to achieve their aims of independence and unity. They belong rather to another level of group solidarities, those that reach beyond the limits of a nationality or a nation.