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² See Becker, Joseph M., S.J., , “Changes in the U.S. Jesuit Membership,” Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits, no. 9 (1977);Google Scholar and Francesco, FarusiS.J., , “The Society in Numbers,” Documentation (Rome), 57 (04 1987). In the United States during the same period, membership fell from over 8,000 to below 5,000.Google Scholar

³ Bratt, Compare James D., Dutch Calvinism in Modern America (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1984);Google ScholarRobert, M. Crunden, Ministers of Reform (New York: Basic Books, 1982);Google ScholarHutchinson, William, The Modernist Impulse in American Protestantism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982);Google ScholarMeyer, Donald, The Protestant Search for Political Realism, 1919–1941, 2d. ed. (Middletown, C.T.: Wesleyan University Press, 1988);Google Scholar and Sanks, T. HowlandS.J., , “Liberation Theology and the Social Gospel,” Theological Studies, 41:4 (1980), 668–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁸ See Davis, Thurston N., S.J., , “What is ‘America’?” in Between Two Cities, Thurston, Davis S.J., Campion, Donald R., S.J., and McHugh, L. C. S.J., eds. (New York: America Press, 1962);Google Scholar and Michael, V. Gannon, “Before and After Modernism: The Intellectual Isolation of the American Priest,” in The Catholic Priest in the United States: Historical Investigations, Ellis, John Tracy, ed. (Collegeville, M.N.: St. John's University Press, 1971).Google Scholar

⁹ Maier, Charles, “The Politics of Productivity: Foundations of American International Economic Policy After World War II,” International Organization, 31:4 (1977), 607–33;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and John, H. Whyte, Catholics in Western Democracies (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1981).Google Scholar See also Oswald, Von Nell-BreuningS.J., , Reorganization of Social Economy (Milwaukee, W.I.: Bruce, 1937);Google ScholarBreuning, Von, “West Germany's Economic Revival,” Social Order, 9 (05 1959), 201–14;Google ScholarDempsey, Bernard W., S.J., , The Functional Economy: The Bases of Economic Organization (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1958);Google ScholarJoseph, B. Gremillion, The Catholic Movement of Employers and Managers (Rome: Gregorian University Press, 1961);Google ScholarGustav, GundlachS.J., , “Solidarist Economics,” Social Order, 1 (04 1951), 181–5;Google ScholarLand, Philip S., S.J., , AND Klubertanz, George P., S.J., , “Practical Reason, Social Fact, and the Vocational Order,” Modern Schoolman, 28:4 (05 1951), 239–66;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Smith, William J., S.J., , Spotlight on Labor Unions (New York: Duell, Sloane and Pearce, 1946).Google Scholar

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¹¹ This is not to say that the generally cautious posture of the Jesuits was unpopular among Catholics in the United States, many of whom were themselves working-class conservatives. The Catholic subculture tended to support the Jesuits' work in education, which promoted mobility, and treated their scattered efforts to improve the plight of labor directly with respectful indifference. See Steven, P. Erie, Rainbow's End: Irish-Americans and the Dilemmas of Urban Machine Politics, 1840–1985 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988);Google ScholarJoshua, B. Freeman, “Catholics, Communists, and Republicans: Irish Workers and the Organization of the Transport Workers Union,” in Working Class America: Essays on Labor, Community, and American Society, Michael, H. Frisch and Daniel, J. Walkowitz, eds. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983);Google ScholarOestreicher, Richard, “Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Theories of American Electoral Politics, 1870–1940,” Journal of American History, 74:4 (03 1988), 1257–86;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Robert, H. Zieger, American Workers, American Unions, 1920–1985 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).Google ScholarO'Brien, Compare David, “Social Teaching, Social Action, Social Gospel,” U.S. Catholic Historian, 5:2 (1986), 195–224.Google Scholar

¹² John, Courtney MurrayS.J., , We Hold These Truths: Catholic Reflections on the American Proposition (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1960).Google Scholar

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¹⁴ See Pellotte, Donald E., John Courtney Murray: Theologian in Conflict (New York: Paulist, 1976);Google ScholarHooper, J. LeonS.J., , The Ethics of Discourse: The Social Philosophy of John Courtney Murray (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1987);Google Scholar and Regan, Richard J., S.J., , American Pluralism and the Catholic Conscience (New York: Macmillan, 1963).Google Scholar

¹⁵ See William, Van Etten CaseyS.J., and Nobile, Philip, eds., The Berrigans (New York: Avon Books, 1971);Google Scholar and Daniel, BerriganS.J., , No Bars to Manhood (New York: Doubleday, 1970).Google Scholar

¹⁶ See Franklin, James L., “Leader of Jesuits Backs Order's Activism,” Boston Sunday Globe (October 9, 1988), 42;Google Scholar and Joseph, ParkesS.J., , AND Arthur, BenderS.J., , eds., The Spiritual Legacy of Pedro Arrupe (New York: Province Office of the Society of Jesus, 1985).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Berrigan, “Lew Cox Dies, ” op. cit., 16.

¹⁸ Ludwig, Dean C., “Avoiding Spiralling Decline: The Effects of Reallocative Retrenchment Strategies on Admissions and Departures in Voluntary Organizations” (Ph.D. disser., Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, 1984). The corresponding figures for the distribution of Jesuit manpower across ministries in other countries are probably not much different. Even in South Asia, where the Society of Jesus is growing most rapidly, most Jesuits are at work in schools. In general, the statistics on Jesuits who are officially classified as working in social ministry almost certainly underestimate the order's movement toward social concern within its still dominant institutions, that is, through scholarship programs for minorities, maintaining schools in what have become inner-city neighborhoods, and the like.Google Scholar

¹⁹ See Camp, Richard L., The Papal Ideology of Social Reform: A Study in Historical Development, 1878–1967 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969);Google ScholarMichael, Campbell-JohnstonS.J., , “The Social Teaching of the Church,” Thought, 39:154 (Autumn 1964), 380–410;Google ScholarFremantle, Ann, ed., The Social Teachings of the Church (New York: Mentor, 1963);Google ScholarJohn, W.Padberg, S. J., ed., Documents of the 3 I st and 32nd General Congregations of the Society of Jesus (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1977);Google Scholar and Schultheis, Michael J., S.J., , DeBerri, Edward P., S.J., , AND Henriot, Peter J., S.J., , Our Best Kept Secret: The Rich Heritage of Catholic Social Teaching (Washington, D.C.: Center of Concern, 1987).Google Scholar

²⁰ This is essentially the position taken by Hunter, James Davison, “Religious Elites in Advanced Industrial Society,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 29:2 (04 1987), 360–80;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Martin, David, “The Clergy, Secularization and Politics,” This World, 6 (Fall 1983), 131–42.Google Scholar

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²⁴ This extremely condensed summary omits the interaction between first- and third-world Jesuits that took place with the expansion of missionary work after the Second World War, especially in Latin America; see Gerald, M. Costello, Mission to Latin America: The Successes and Failures of a Twentieth Century Crusade (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1979);Google ScholarGremillion, Joseph B., ed., The Church and Culture since Vatican II: The Experience of North and South America (Notre Dame, I.N.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985);Google Scholar and Smith, Brian H., The Church and Politics in Chile: Challenges to Modern Catholicism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁵ In the United States, the turning away from political conservatism was probably also facilitated by the pre-existing social democratic sympathies of most Jesuits. The majority of American Jesuits, through the postwar period, saw themselves as New Deal Democrats, as did American Catholic generally; see Biever, Bruce F., S.J., , AND Gannon, Thomas M., S.J., , eds., General Survey of the Society of Jesus: North American Assistancy, 5 vols. (Chicago: National Office of Pastoral Research/Argus Press, 1969).Google Scholar

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³³ Ibid., 10–11.

³⁴ Ibid., 20–21.

³⁵ Ibid., 83–84, 259.

³⁶ See the analysis of "militant respectability" by Hugh McLeod, "Catholicism and the New York Irish, 1880–1910," in Disciplines of Faith: Studies in Religion, Politics and Patriarchy, Jim Obelkevich, Lyndal Roper, and Raphael Samuel, eds. (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987). Compare Timothy J. Meagher, ed., From Paddy to Studs: Irish-American Communities in the Turn of the Century Era, 1880 to 1920 (Westport, C.T.: Greenwood, 1986).

³⁷ See Blackboum, David, “Progress and Piety: Liberalism, Catholicism and the State in Imperial Germany,” History Workshop Journal, 26 (Autumn, 1988), 57–78;CrossRefGoogle ScholarGleason, Philip, The Conservative Reformers: German-American Catholics and the Social Order (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968);Google Scholar and Mulcahy, Richard E., S.J., , The Economics of Heinrich Pesch (New York: Henry Holt, 1952);Google ScholarCalhoun, compare Craig, “The Radicalism of Tradition,” American Journal of Sociology, 88:5 (03 1983), 889914;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Strikwerda, Carl, “The Divided Class: Catholics vs. Socialists in Belgium, 1880–1914,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 30:2 (04 1988), 333–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁴⁰ Alfonso, Alvarez BoladoS.J., , El Experimento del Nacional-Catolicismo, 1939–1975 (Madrid: Edicusa, 1976);Google Scholar and Salazar, Rafael Díaz, lglesia, Dictadura y Democracia: Catolicismo y Sociedad en España (Madrid: Ediciones HOAC, 1981).Google Scholar

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⁴⁵ Murray, , “The Problem of Pluralism…, ” op cit., 171.Google Scholar See also James, H. Billington, Fire in the Minds of Men: Origins of the Revolutionary Faith (New York: Basic Books, 1980);Google ScholarBonomi, Patricia U., Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986);Google Scholar and Wilstach, Paul, ed., Correspondence of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, 1812–1826 (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1925).Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Murray, , We Hold These Truths, op. cit., 51.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Ibid., 51–52.

⁴⁸ Ibid., 61.

⁴⁹ Murray, , “Reversing the Secular Drift,” Thought, 24:92 (03 1949), 36–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Compare Bellah, Robert N., et al., Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).Google Scholar

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⁵¹ Ibid., 421.

⁵² Ibid., 425.

⁵³ Ibid., 424.

⁵⁴ Ibid.

⁵⁵ Ong, Walter J., S.J., , Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958).Google Scholar See also Lumpp, Randolph F., “Walter Jackson Ong, S.J.: A Biographical Portrait,” Oral Tradition, 2:1 (01 1987), 13–18;Google ScholarEisenstein, Elizabeth L., The Printing Press as Agent of Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979);Google Scholar and Murray, Osmyn, “The Word Is Mightier Than the Pen,” Times Literary Supplement (June 16–22, 1989), 655–6.Google Scholar

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⁶¹ Ong summarizes his approach in Interfaces of the Word: Studies in the Evolution of Consciousness and Culture (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1977), 9–11:Google Scholar

[T]he works do not maintain that the evolution from primary orality through writing and print to an electronic culture, which produces secondary orality, causes or explains everything in human culture and consciousness. Rather, the thesis is relationist: major developments, and very likely even all major developments, in culture and consciousness are related, often in unexpected intimacy, to the evolution of the word from primary orality to its present state. But the relationships are varied and complex, with cause and effect often difficult to distinguish.… From the time of my studies of Peter Ramus and Ramism, my work has grown into its own kind of phenomenological history of culture and consciousness, so I have been assured by others, elaborated in terms of noetic operations as these interrelate with primary oral verbalization and later with chirographic and typographic and electronic technologies that reorganize verbalization and thought. Compare Kolb, Elene, “When Women Finally Got the Word,” New York Times BookReview (07 9, 1989), 1, 28–29.Google Scholar

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⁶³ Ibid., 129.

⁶⁴ Baron, Compare Dennis, Grammar and Gender (New Haven, C.T.: Yale University Press, 1986);Google ScholarGoody, Jack, The Interface Between the Written and the Oral (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987);Google ScholarGraff, Harvey J., ed., Literacy and Social Development in the West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981);Google Scholar and Kennedy, George A., Classical Rhetoric and its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980).Google Scholar

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⁶⁷ Mosse, Compare George L., Nationalism and Sexuality: Middle Class Morality and Sexual Norms in Modern Europe (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985).Google Scholar

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⁶⁹ Ibid., 167. See also Avery, DullesS.J., , Models of the Church (New York: Doubleday, 1974).Google Scholar

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⁷¹ Ibid., 178.

⁷² It is significant that in speculating on the indeterminancy of postconciliar Catholicism, Ong has recourse to both agonistic and conciliatory imagery:

Of course, you can make and make statements that are true, but they are never in every way complete. Someone can always ask another question. But, in real life, asking another question may not be the thing to do because it may, here and now, only confuse the real issues—which are never purely intellectual (Ong, personal communication, September 8, 1988).

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⁷⁴ See the overview by Guth, James L.et al., “The Politics of Religion in America: Issues for Investigation,” American Politics Quarterly, 16:3 (07 1988), 357–96:CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁷⁸ The survey presented here of Jesuit writings on these subjects is far from complete. Two prominent American Jesuits have been omitted altogether. One is John LaFarge, scion of the artistic family, early civil rights activist, and an influential editor of America magazine: another is John L. Thomas, who specialized in the sociology of the family during the postwar period. See Davis, Thurston N., S.J., , AND Joseph, SmallS.J., , A John LaFarge Reader (New York: America Press, 1956);Google Scholar and Thomas, John L., S.J., , The American Catholic Family (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1956).Google Scholar Also important for catching the tenor of Jesuit thinking on gender relations during the postwar period prior to Vatican II are Faherty, William B., S.J., , The Destiny of Modern Woman in the Light of Papal Teaching (Westminster, M.D.: Newman Press, 1950);Google Scholar and Treacy, Gerald C., S.J., , ed., Woman's Duties in Social and Political Life: Pope Pius XII (New York: Paulist Press, 1945).Google Scholar A pertinent selection of writings by the founder of the Society of Jesus was assembled by Rahner, Hugh, ed., Saint Ignatius Loyola: Letters to Women (New York: Herder and Herder, 1960).Google Scholar

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