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¹³ Damen, Frans, Crisis and Religious Renewal in the Brahmo Samaj: A Study of the New Dispensation under Keshab Chandra Sen (Leuven: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 1983)Google Scholar; and Kopf, David, The Brahmo Samaj and the Shaping of the Modern Indian Mind (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979)Google Scholar. For a short discussion of Keshabs concept of Asia: Prasad, Birendra, “Keshab Chandra Sen: Prophet of Pan Asianism,” Quarterly Review of Historical Studies 15, 2 (1975–1976): 122–25Google Scholar.

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²¹ Their numbers rose from fifty-four in 1906 to well over a hundred in 1910. Fischer-Tiné, Harald, “Indian Nationalism and the ‘World Forces’: Transnational and Diasporic Dimensions of the Indian Freedom Movement on the Eve of the First World War,” Journal of Global History 2, 3 (2007): 325–44, here 336CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²⁴ See also Best, Antony, “India, Pan-Asianism and the Anglo-Japanese Alliance,” in O'Brien, P., ed., The Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 1902–1922 (London: Routledge, 2004), 236–48Google Scholar.

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³⁰ Among other things, this solidarity found expression in the sending of a medical mission to China, received by one Hengchi Tao with the following words: “These Angels of Mercy have in their hands not only the cure for the wounded but also love to bind together the hearts of these two great nations.” Harijan, 22 Oct. 1938: 296.

³¹ For instance T. Kurose, who enlisted the support of many Bengali youths in Calcutta. APAC, IOR, L/PJ/12/158, Weekly Intelligence Report, 3 Dec. 1938.

³² The Indo-Japanese Society in Calcutta co-funded a monthly review to highlight the “Asiatic” and “anti-European side” of Japan's policy. Other examples include: “A Japanese Visitor,” Harijan, 24 Dec. 1938: 404; Japanese Professor T. Kurose, in the Singh Observer, Dec. 1938: n.p.; and the Tagore-Noguchi correspondence published in both Amrita Bazar Patrika and Visva Bharati Quarterly in September 1938.

³³ At the subscription rate of 1 yen, a price probably aimed at both a wide circulation and a student readership. APAC, IOR, L/PJ/12/163, on Rash Behari Bose, British Embassy Tokyo, 31 May 1933.

³⁴ IOR, L/PJ/12/158, British Consulate General at Kobe, 30 Sept. 1938.

³⁵ For a general account, see Manela, Erez, The Wilsonian Moment. Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007)Google Scholar; and Manela, Erez, “Imagining Woodrow Wilson in Asia: Dreams of East-West Harmony and the Revolt against Empire in 1919,” American Historical Review 111, 6 (2006): 1327–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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³⁸ “Speech in the General Assembly of the League of Nations, Geneva, 3 October 1932,” in idem, 911. This sentiment is echoed in both Kalidas Nag's writings on Aryan civilization in Central Asia and Tagore's sojourn in Persia and Iraq (1932), where he, too, emphasized the ancient linkages of both these countries to India. See Tagore, Rabindranath, Journey to Persia and Iraq (Santiniketan: Visva Bharati, 1994)Google Scholar.

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⁴⁰ Ibid., 1040.

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⁴² Examples of these bulletins are the Urdu-language Khilafat-I ‘Usmaniyya (a weekly, later continued as a daily under the name Khilafat), or the English weekly Khilafat Bulletin.

⁴³ Editorial, Khilafat Bulletin (published by the Central Khilafat Committee of India, Bombay), 11 Aug. 1922: 2.

⁴⁴ For an excellent account of the Khilafat movement and Congress, see M. Naeem Qureshi, Pan-Islam in British-Indian Politics.

⁴⁵ M. Hasan, Pan-Islamism, XXVI, Sept. 1985, 10.

⁴⁶ Krása, “The Idea of Pan-Asianism,” 246.

⁴⁷ Ibid. See also Banerji, Asianism and other Essays.

⁴⁸ Virendranath Chattopadhyaya was a revolutionary in exile, who succeeded M. N. Roy to the Indian leadership of the Comintern. At the time, Chattopadhyaya was the League Against Imperialism's secretary in Germany. For biographical details, see Barooah, Nirode K., The Life and Times of an Indian Anti-Imperialist in Europe (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

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⁵³ Membership of the former was blocked by moderate sections in the All-India Trade Union Congress, but India received a seat on the latter. Eudin, X. J. and North, R. C., Soviet Russia and the East, 1920–1927: A Documentary Survey (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957), 268Google Scholar. See also Fowler, J., “From East to West and West to East: Ties of Solidarity in the Pan-Pacific Revolutionary Trade Union Movement, 1923–1934,” International Labour and Working Class History 66 (2004): 99–117Google Scholar.

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⁵⁶ Several prominent Indian pan-Asianists living in Japan were also part of the INA, such as A. M. Sahay and R. B. Bose, and as a movement it had its pedigree in pan-Asian thought. However, extensive treatment of the INA falls outside of our chronological and thematic scope here. For details, see S. Bose, K., A Beacon across Asia: A Biography of Subhas Chandra Bose (Bombay: Orient Longman, 1973)Google Scholar; Gupta, S. S., Our Struggle and Rash Behari Bose (Calcutta: Books of the World, 1951)Google Scholar; Oshawa, J. G., Two Great Indians in Japan: Shri Rash Behari Bose and Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose (Calcutta: Kusa Publications, 1954)Google Scholar; Ramu, P. S., Rash Behari Bose: A Revolutionary “Unwept, Unhonoured and Unsung” (New Delhi: The Freedom Movement Memorial Committee, 1998)Google Scholar.

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⁵⁸ Bombay Chronicle, 21 Jan. 1949.

⁵⁹ Jansen, G. H., Afro-Asia and Non-Alignment (London: Faber, 1966), 51Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ All three discourses have wielded considerable influence, but it is not argued here that they were the only or main architects of Indian pan-Asianism; other strong influences, besides the developments traced above, include the substantial interaction between South India and Southeast Asia, North India and Central Asia, Buddhist revivalism, networks of lascars, revolutionaries, and many others.

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⁸⁵ Editorial, Young India, 1 Mar. 1928: 67.

⁸⁶ “Mahatma to Address Inter-Asian Meet?” Bombay Chronicle, 24 Mar. 1947: 1.

⁸⁷ “Questions and Answers between Gandhi and Delegates,” Harijan, 20 Apr. 1947: 113.

⁸⁸ Ibid.: 116.

⁸⁹ Ibid.: 117.

⁹⁰ Kalidas Nag was not only an admirer of the Bengali poet but also a close collaborator, accompanying Tagore on his tour of France in 1920, and his tour of Asia four years later.

⁹¹ See Bayly, Susan, “Imagining ‘Greater India’: French and Indian Visions of Colonialism in the Indic Mode,” Modern Asian Studies 38, 3 (2004): 703–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and “India's “Empire of Culture”: Sylvain Lévi and the Greater India Society,” in Bansat-Boudon, L. and Lardinois, R., eds., Sylvain Lévi (1863–1935): Études Indiennes, histoire sociale: Actes du Colloque tenu a Paris les 8–10 Octobre 2003 (Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2007), 193–212CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁹⁸ Dasgupta, Paresh Chandra, “Cultural Affinity between India and Siam,” Journal of the Greater India Society 17, 1 & 2 (1958): 269–308Google Scholar; and Gangoly, O. C., “On Some Hindu Relics in Borneo,” Journal of the Greater India Society 3, 1 (1936): 97–103Google Scholar; Nag, Kalidas, Greater India (A Study in Indian Internationalism) (Calcutta: Greater India Society, 1926)Google Scholar; Bagchi, Prabodh Chandra, India and China (Calcutta: Greater India Society, 1927)Google Scholar; Chatterjee, Bijan Raj, Indian Culture in Java and Sumatra (Calcutta: Greater India Society, 1927)Google Scholar; Chakravarti, Niranjan Prasad, India and Central Asia (Calcutta: Greater India Society, 1927)Google Scholar; and Ghoshal, Upendranath, Ancient Indian Culture in Afghanistan (Calcutta: Greater India Society, 1928)Google Scholar; see also Sadananda, , Pilgrimage to Greater India (Calcutta: Swami Sadananda, 1936)Google Scholar.

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¹⁰³ Chaudhuri, Kirti N., Asia before Europe: Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 58–59Google Scholar. For the background and content of this understanding of Hindu-“xenology,” see also Halbfass, Wilhelm, India and Europe: An Essay in Philosophical Understanding (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1991), 172–96Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁴ Tagore, Rabindranath, “Asian Cultural Rapprochement,” Modern Review 54 (Dec. 1933): 661–65, here 661Google Scholar. Contemporary Hindu-nationalist groups have employed a surprisingly similar rhetoric. See also Susan Bayly, “India's ‘Empire of Culture,’” 210–11.

¹⁰⁵ It was also different from the perception of Greater India Society's Kalidas Nag, who was eager to search for “Aryan” remnants further west. Nag, K., Greater India; and India and the Middle East (Calcutta: M. C. Sarkar & Sons, 1954)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ Hindu Outlook, 27 July 1940: 13.

¹⁰⁷ Hindu Outlook, 25 May 1940: 3.

¹⁰⁸ Savarkar, Vinayak D., Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu? (New Delhi: Bharati Sahitya Sadan, 2005), 17Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁹ Rashbehari Bose to Savarkar, 11 July 1938, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, Savarkar Private Papers, R6450/23.

¹¹⁰ Idem, letter dated 18 Aug. 1938.

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¹¹³ APAC, IOR, P&J/12/45, Far Eastern Department, 29 Aug. 1921.

¹¹⁴ Nehru, Jawaharlal, The Discovery of India (Repr. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992 [1946]), 200–10Google Scholar; and Glimpses of World History (Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1964 [1934]), 101–5, 136–40Google Scholar.

¹¹⁵ See also Jaffrelot, “India's Look East Policy,” 38–40.

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¹¹⁷ See Amrith, Sunil, “Tamil Diasporas across the Bay of Bengal,” American Historical Review 114, 3 (2009): 547–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mann, Michael, Geschichte Indiens vom 18. bis zum 21. Jahrhundert (Paderborn: UTB, 2005), 207–75Google Scholar.

¹¹⁸ For Southeast Asian skepticism, see also Keenleyside, “Nationalist Indian Attitudes,” 221.

¹¹⁹ In particular, “Long Live Greater Bharat,” Organiser, 16 Nov. 1949; “Bharat Must Save Tibet,” Organiser, 23 Nov. 1949; “Why India Should Recognize Israel,” Hindu Outlook, 4 Apr. 1950; “The International Aspects of Hindu Nationalism,” Hindu Outlook, 8 Nov. 1953; “Pan-Islam, A Living Force,” Organiser, 22 Feb. 1957.

¹²⁰ For Sarkar's biography, see Frykenberg, Robert E., “Benoy Kumar Sarkar, 1887–1949, Political Rishi of Twentieth-Century Bengal,” in Berkemer, G. et al. et al., eds., Explorations in the History of South Asia: Essays in Honour of Dietmar Rothermund (New Delhi: Manohar, 2001), 197–217Google Scholar; and Mukherjee, Haridas, Benoy Kumar Sarkar: A Study (Calcutta: Das Gupta and Co., 1953), 3–25Google Scholar.

¹²¹ For a biography, see: Mukherjee, Tapan K., Taraknath Das: Life and Letters of a Revolutionary in Exile (Calcutta: National Council of Education, 1998)Google Scholar.

¹²² On the Swadeshi movement, see, inter alia, Goswami, Manu, Producing India: From Colonial Economy to National Space (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 244–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ray, Rajat Kanta, Social Conflict and Political Unrest in Bengal, 1875–1927 (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1984), 160–206Google Scholar; and Sarkar, Sumit, The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal 1903–1908 (New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 1973)Google Scholar.

¹²³ Bhattacharya, Swapan Kumar, Indian Sociology: The Role of Benoy Kumar Sarkar (Burdwan: University of Burdwan, 1990), 40–54Google Scholar.

¹²⁴ Lecture at Clark University, Worcester, Mass., Nov. 1917, published as: Sarkar, Benoy Kumar, “The Futurism of Young Asia,” International Journal of Ethics 28, 4 (1918): 521–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹²⁶ Sarkar, “Futurism of Young Asia,” 521. See also, Raina, Dhruv and Habib, Irfan S., “The Moral Legitimation of Modern Science: Bhadralok Reflections on Theories of Evolution,” Social Studies of Science 26, 1 (1996): 9–42, here 27–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²⁷ Sarkar, Benoy Kumar, Hindu Achievements in Exact Sciences (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1918)Google Scholar; “Public Finance in Ancient India,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 97 (Sept. 1921): 151–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar; The Positive Background of Hindu Sociology: Introduction to Hindu Positivism (Sacred Books of the Hindus, vol. 23) (Allahabad: The Panini Office, 1937 [1914]).

¹²⁸ Sarkar, Benoy Kumar, “Sino-Japanese Buddhism and Neo-Hinduism,” Modern Review 20 (July 1916): 39–47Google Scholar; “The Democratic Background of Chinese Culture,” Scientific Monthly 8, 1 (1919): 58–65Google Scholar; “Reshaping of the Middle East,” Journal of Race Development 9, 4 (1919): 332–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “The Beginnings of the Republic in China,” Modern Review (Aug. 1920): 119–24; and “Persia and the Persian Gulf (1906–1919),” in Futurism of Young Asia, 38–47.

¹²⁹ Sarkar, Benoy Kumar, “La Théorie de la Constitution dans la Philosophie Indienne,” Revue de Synthèse Historique 31 (Aug.–Dec. 1920): 47–52Google Scholar; Die Lebensanschauung des Inders (Leipzig: Markert and Petters, 1923)Google Scholar; and “Societá ed economia nell'India antica e moderna,” Annali di Economia 6, 2 (1930): 303–47Google Scholar.

¹³⁰ In this context, the volumes of Benoy Kumar Sarkar—Barttamān Jagat (The world of today) (5 Vols., Calcutta: Grihastha Publishing House, 1915–1923)—must be noted, in which he brought to a Bengali readership the culture, society, and politics of the countries that he visited during his first long world tour. See also: Mukherjee, Benoy Kumar Sarkar, 19.

¹³¹ Sarkar, “Indo-Asian Contacts,” 133–34.

¹³² Sarkar, Futurism of Young Asia, 333.

¹³³ Das earned a masters degree in Political Science from the University of Washington in 1911, and his doctorate in 1925 from Georgetown University. For further biographical details, see T. K. Mukherjee, Taraknath Das; Das, Ranendranath, Taraknath Das—Ein Lebensbild des indischen Revolutionärs, Freiheitskämpfers und Gelehrten (Berlin: Taraknath Das-Stiftung, 1996)Google Scholar.

¹³⁴ On the activities and ideology of the Ghadar, see inter alia: Ramnath, Maia, “Two Revolutions: The Ghadar Movement and India's Radical Diaspora, 1913–1918,” Radical History Review 92 (2005): 7–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hoover, Karl, “The Hindu Conspiracy in California, 1913–1918,” German Studies Review 8, 2 (1985): 245–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Puri, Harish K., Ghadar Movement: Ideology, Organisation, and Strategy (Amritsar: Guru Nanak Dev University Press, 1983)Google Scholar; and Josh, Sohan Singh, Hindustan Gadar Party: A Short History, 2 vols. (New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 1978)Google Scholar.

¹³⁵ Apparently he managed to travel the Far East disguised as a patent medicine salesman. APAC, IOR, P&J/12/166: File on Taraknath Das (1923).

¹³⁶ Quoted in Mukherjee, Taraknath Das, 101.

¹³⁷ Das, Taraknath, “Pan Asianism, Asian Independence and World Peace,” Modern Review (Jan. 1929): 44–52Google Scholar. See also Das, Taraknath, “Awakened Asia and Germany in World Politics,” Calcutta Review (Oct. 1927): 107–13Google Scholar.

¹³⁸ Steadman, John, The Myth of Asia (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1969), 35Google Scholar.

¹³⁹ Banerji, Asianism and other Essays, 1.