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² In each of the cases studied in this article, a religious frontier coincided with an ethnic one, that is, a people of one religion conquered a foreign people of another. There were medieval frontiers, of course, which involved peoples of the same religion, for example, Catholic Normans and Anglo-Saxons; peoples of different branches of the same religion in schism, for example, Catholic crusaders and the Byzantines after the Fourth Crusade; “orthodox” and “heretics,” such as Catholic Hungary and Bogomil Bosnia or Sunni and Shi'ite Muslims; or Christians and “pagans,” such as Germans and Lithuanians or Slavs. The phenomenon of Christian-Muslim frontier societies, to my knowledge, never involved the same people, but that is very difficult to imagine since religion figured so heavily in the self-consciousness of medieval social groups.

I am using ethnic and people here merely as generic terms without a specific conceptual content, largely to avoid dealing with the question of medieval nations and nationalism.

Recent research by social anthropologists suggests that ethnic groups develop not in isolation but in interaction with other ethnic groups. See Barth, Frederick, “Introduction,” in Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference, Barth, Frederick, ed. (Boston, 1969), 9–38.Google Scholar

³ Owen Lattimore developed the concept of the frontier as a zone to describe relations between the Chinese and their Inner Asian nomadic neighbors. See Lattimore, Owen, “China and the Barbarians,” in Empire in the East, Barnes, Joseph, ed. (Garden City, New York, 1934), 3–36Google Scholar; idem.Inner Asian Frontiers of China (Boston, 1962)Google Scholar; idem.Studies in Frontier History. Collected Papers, 1928–1958 (London, 1962)Google Scholar, especially “The Frontier in History,” 469–91.Google Scholar

The dynamics of Inner Asian empire building, in which a pastoral nomadic people acquired sedentary subjects, overlap the processes of religious frontier conquest analyzed in this essay, but demand separate treatment.

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