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² For a review of literature, see Siddigi, Muhammad Nejatullah, Muslim Economic Thinking: A Survey of Contemporary Literature (Leicester, U. K.: The Islamic Foundation, 1981);Google Scholar and for an introduction to some debates, see Kuran, Timur, “The Economic System in Contemporary Islamic Thought: Interpretation and Assessment,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 18:2 (05 1986), 135–64;CrossRefGoogle Scholaridem.“Behavioral Norms in the Islamic Doctrine of Economics: A Critique,” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 4:4 (12 1983), 353–79;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Nomani, Farhad and Rahnema, Au, Islamic Economic Systems (London: Zed Press, 1994).Google Scholar

³ Navvab-Safavi, Mojtaba, Barnameh-ye Enqelabi-ye Fada'ian Eslam (1950), provides a brief sketch of the mode of organizing commerce in his ideal Islamic society. Also, Seyyed Mahmood Talegani's Eslam va Malekivat, a preliminary analysis of Islam's view on economic matters, was first published in 1951, and is available in English as Islam and Ownership, translated from Persian by Ahmad Jabbari and Farhang Rajaee (Lexington KY: Mazda Publishers, 1983).Google Scholar

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⁷ Shariati, Ali, Marxism and Other Western Fallacies: An Islamic Critique, translated from Persian (Ensan, Marksism va Eslam [Qum: n.p., 1976]) by R. Campbell (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1980), 73. The choice of title for the English translation reflects the translator's taste and not necessarily Shariati's. The Persian title may be translated as “Man, Marxism and Islam.” Shariati refused to present himself as an anti-Marxist in his essays and lectures, although it would have been politically convenient to do so in the circumstances of his activist career.Google Scholar

⁸ Shariati openly and repeatedly addressed in his lectures the existence of a sense of inferiority among Muslim intellectuals about Marxism in these years in Iran. See, for example, “Chegooneh Mandan,” in Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 2 (Daftar-e Tadvin va Enteshar-e Asar-e Bradar-e Shahid Doktor Ali Shariati dar Oropa, n. d. [circa 1978]), pp. 50–53.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ Shariati, Ali, On the Sociology of Islam, translated from Persian by Algar, Hamid (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1979), 97.Google Scholar This book includes excerpts from Shariati, Ali, Eslamshenasi (I) Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 16.Google Scholar There are also two other volumes to this work, Eslamshenasi (2) Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 17Google Scholar and Eslamshenasi (3) Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 18. They are transcribed from audio tapes by Daffar-e Tadvin va Tanzim-e Majmo'eh-e Asar-e Mo'allem-e Shahid Ali Shariati (henceforth Daftar) and published in Tehran by Entesharat-e Qalam (1981).Google Scholar

¹¹ Shariati, Ali, Ensan, Marksism va Eslam. In this pamphlet, Shariati refutes the allegation of being a materialist. Here (page 63, Campbell's translation ) he points out that “one may find shared elements in any opposing schools of thought” and “similarities of ideals are typically confused with ideological similarities.”Google Scholar

¹² Shariati, , On the Sociology of Islam, 92–93.Google Scholar

¹³ Ibid., 98.

¹⁴ Shariati, , On the Sociology of Islam, 98–110.Google Scholar On Shariati and Marxism, see also Abrahamian, Ervand, The Iranian Mojahedin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 113–18.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Ibid., 100.

¹⁶ Marx, Karl, “The So-Called Primitive Accumulation,” Capital, vol. I (New York: International Publishers, 1967), part VIII.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Shariati, , On the Sociology of Islam, 112–4.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Ibid., 111–2. See also Shariati, Ali, From Where Shall We Begin? and The Machine in Captivity of Machinism, translated from Persian by Marjani, Fatollah (Houston: Free Islamic Literature, 1980), 37.Google Scholar

¹⁹ à la “Preface” in Marx, Karl, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (Moscow: Progress Publisher, 1970).Google Scholar

²⁰ In spite of censorship, some descriptions of Marxian analysis were available in Iran in the pre-revolutionary years.

²¹ Shariati, , On the Sociology of Islam, 108–9.Google Scholar

²² He explains these two tendencies fully in his “Mazhab 'Aleyh-e Mazhab” in Mazhab 'Aleyhe Mazhab, Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 22, Daftar (Tehran: Enesharat-e Sabz, 1982), and alludes to them repeatedly in his other works.Google Scholar

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²⁴ Shariati, , Eslamshenasi, (1), 56.Google Scholar He uses the notion of Islamic Protestantism in “Az Koja Aghaz Konim?,” in Chehbavad Kard? Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 20, Daftar (Tehran: Entesharat-e Sabz, 1981), 292,Google Scholar and Renaissance, Islamic in “Pedar! Madar! Ma Mottahamim,” in Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 22, 169.Google Scholar

²⁵ In some of his arguments, Shariati's justification for Shi'i Protestantism is based on rejecting Safavi Shi'ism as the religion of the party of Cain, which must have existed in one form or another from the beginning of history. However, on other occasions he bases his analysis on the needs of changing times and social circumstances. This is his line of argument in his Eslamshenasi (1), and Tarikh va Shenakht-e Adyan (1), and Tarikh va Shenakht-e Advan (2), Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 15, Daftar (Tehran: Enteshar, 1983).Google Scholar

²⁶ Khomeini, Rohollah, Kashf al-Asrar (Qum: n.p., n. d. [circa 1943]).Google Scholar See Richards, Yann, “Shari'ati Sangalaji: A Reformist Theologian of the Rida Shah Period,” Said Arjomand, Amir, ed., Authority and Political Culture in Shi'ism (Albany: State University of New York, 1988), 160–1.Google Scholar

²⁷ Ibid., 166. Richard points out that although there are some close similarities between Ali Shariati's thought and those of Shariat-Sangalaji, it is not certain that Shariati was familiar with Shariat-Sangalaji's writings. Ibid., 174.

²⁸ For Fada'ian-Eslam's own account of Kasravi's assassination, see Khoshniyyat, Seyyed Hosein, Seyyed Mojtaba Navvab Safavi; Andisheh-ha, Mobarezat va Shahadat-e ou, (n.p.: Manshour-e Baradari, 1982), 17–25.Google Scholar For a brief review of Islamic Protestantism from the orthodox viewpoint, see Abolhasani, Ali (Monzer), Shahid Mutahhari (Qum: Entesharat-e Eslami, 1983), 158–77.Google Scholar

²⁹ See ibid., 2–4.

³⁰ For a review of the ideological differences between Mutahhari and Shariati, see Rahnema, Ali and Nomani, Farhad, The Secular Miracle, Religion, Politics and Economic Policy in Iran (London: Zed Press, 1990), 37–79;Google ScholarDabashi, Hamid, Theology of Discontent (New York: New York University Press, 1993), 102–215;Google Scholar and Fischer, Michael M. J. and Abedi, Mehdi, Debating Muslims (Madison: The University Press of Wisconsin, 1990), 173–221. Fischer and Abedi also present a concise biography of these two men.Google Scholar

³¹ Mutahhari, Murtaza, 'Elal-e Gerayesh be Maddigari (Qum: Entesharat-e Sadra, 1978), 34.Google Scholar This book was first printed in 1971. In its eighth printing in 1978, Mutahhari adds a new introduction in which he points to the “dangerous ploy.” He also outlined his explicit criticism of Shariati's Eslamshenasi in a note that he apparently made to himself and was left incomplete by his assassination in May 1979. (Mutahhari was assassinated by Forqan, a group that had a fervent belief in Shariati's doctrine of Islam without clergy.) This note is published as “Eslamshenasi ya Eslamsara'i,” in Abolhasani, , Shahid Mutahhari, 417–35.Google Scholar

³² Mutahhari, Murtaza, Social and Historical Change; An Islamic Perspective, translated from Persian by Campbell, R. (Berkeley: Mizan, 1986), 96–124.Google Scholar

³³ Ibid., 111.

³⁴ Ibid., 106. In a clever exegesis of the Quran's oppression verse (XXVIII:5, cited above) Mutahhari rejects any claim by those who point to a class struggle as the course of historical development in Islam. See his Social and Historical Change, 111–16.Google Scholar

³⁵ Ibid., 106.

³⁶ Ibid., 105.

³⁷ Ibid., 120–2.

³⁸ Ibid., 107.

³⁹ Ibid., and Mutahhari, Murtaza, Fundamentals of Islamic Thought: God, Man and the Universe, translated from Persian by Campbell, R. (Berkeley: Mizan Press), 53.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Shariati, , Tarikh va Shenakht-e Advan, vol. 2, 25.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Ibid., 39.

⁴² Shariati, , On the Sociology of Islam, 100.Google Scholar

⁴³ Shariati, , From Where Shall We Begin?, 29.Google Scholar Shariati also quotes Abu Dharr saying “I wonder why someone who finds no food in his home does not draw his sword in rebellion against the people.” See Shariati, , Mazhab 'Alevh-e Mazhab, 53.Google Scholar On the story of Abu Dharr, see Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Mutahhari ridicules those who hold these views for seeing the path of a revolution going “through the stomach.” He says that these intellectuals have made of Dharr, Abu, “Abu Dharr of stomach.”Google Scholar See his Social and Historical Change, 117.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Mutahhari, , Fundamentals, 96. Here I have quoted The Quran from Pickthall's translation.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Ibid.

⁴⁷ Mutahhari, , Fundamentals, 94–96Google Scholar and his 'Adl-e Elahi (Qum: Entesharat-e Eslami, 1982), 150–54.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Ibid., 150.

⁴⁹ Mutahhari, , Fundamentals, 95.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ The arguments in this and the following paragraph are from Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

⁵¹ See, for example, The Quran, 11:29, 115. 284; XXII:64, 65; LV:10; LVII:5, 10.

⁵² Talegani's, Seyyed MahmoodEslam va Malekiyat (Tehran: Enteshar, 1965), 121–50;Google Scholar and Tabataba'i, Seyyed Muhammad Hosein, Falsafeh-ye Egtesad-e Eslam, Tavanian-Fard, H., ed. (Tehran: 'Ata'i, 1982), 150–78.Google Scholar

⁵³ See Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Shariati, Ali, From Where Shall We Begin?, 39.Google Scholar

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⁵⁶ Shariati, , Eslamshenasi, (2), 296.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ I use the past tense because some of their views have changed in the more recent years.

⁵⁸ Iran, Mojahedin-e Kalq-e, Shenakht (Metodolozhi), Ideolozhi, Part 1 (Mojahedin-e Kalq-e Iran: n. p. 09/10 1972).Google Scholar

⁵⁹ These lectures were published in a series of pamphlets titled, Tab yin-e Jahan (Qava'd-e va Mafhoom-e Takamol); Amoozesha-ye Ideolozhik, (Entesharat-e Sazman-e Mojahedin-e Khalq-e Iran: n. p., 1980).Google Scholar

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⁶¹ Iran, Mojahedin-e Khalq-e, Elteqat va Ideolozhiha-ye Eltegati; Majmo'eh-e Seh Sokhanrani (n. p.: Anjoman-e Daneshjoyan-e Mosalman-e Kompiyoter, n. d. [circa 1980]).Google Scholar

⁶² Noted in a 1978 Mojahedin document. See Abrahamian, , The Iranian Mojahedin, 92.Google Scholar

⁶³ See, for example, Mojahedin, , Shenakht, 10,Google Scholar and Tabvin-e Jahan, 9, 11–12.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ A statement by Hanifnezhad quoted by Abrahamian, , The Iranian Mojahedin, 93.Google Scholar

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⁶⁷ Shariati, Ali, From Where Shall We Begin?. 22–23.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Ibid., 51.

⁶⁹ Mojahedin, , Tabyin-e Jahan, no. 6, 16–17.Google Scholar

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⁷⁶ Abrahamian, , The Iranian Mojahedin, 184–85, quoted from Ayandegan (March 1, 1979).Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Sadr, Seyyed Muhammad Bagir, Egtesad-e Ma, vol. 1, translated by Mosavi-Bojnordi, Muhammad Kazem (n. p.: Entesharat-e Eslami, 1971); vol. 2, translated by Esphbodi, 'A. (Tehran: Entesharat-e Eslami, 1978).Google Scholar The original text in Arabic is Igtisaduna (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1968 [first published 1961]).Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Talegani, , Eslam va Malekiyat, 122.;Google ScholarTabataba'i, , Falsafeh-ye Egtesad-e Eslam, 158–60.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Sadr, , Egtesad-e Ma, vol. 2, 32.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Ibid., 33.

⁸¹ Sadr, , Eqtesad-e Ma, vol. 1, 354.Google Scholar

⁸² Ibid., 355.

⁸³ Sadr, , Egtesad-e Ma, vol. 2, 62–63.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ MacPherson, C. B., “The Meaning of Property,” in his Property: Mainstream and Critical Positions (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), 4–6.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Sadr, , Egtesad-e Ma, vol. 2, 62–63 and 88–89.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Ibid., 88.

⁸⁷ Ibid., 358.

⁸⁸ Ibid., 358–63.

⁸⁹ Ibid., 319–20.

⁹⁰ Ibid., 156–66 and 438–40.

⁹¹ Sadr, , Eqtesad-e Ma, vol. 1, 210–47.Google Scholar See also Behdad, Sohrab, “Islamization of Economics in Iranian Universities,” International Journal of Middle East Studies (forthcoming).Google Scholar

⁹² See Sadr, , Eqtesad-e Ma, vol. 2., 225–56,Google Scholar and Saleh, Nabil A., Unlawful Gain and Legitimate Profit in Islamic Law (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 91–115.Google Scholar For a critical analysis of these Islamic contracts, see Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

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⁹⁵ Ibid., 217 and 221. In this argument, Sadr, obviously, deviates from the Neoclassical notion of value.

⁹⁶ ibid., 226.

⁹⁷ For a more thorough analysis of market relations sanctioned by Islamic jurisprudence, see Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Sadr, , Egtesad-e Ma, vol. 2, 330.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Ibid., 331.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., 331.

¹⁰¹ Ibid., 341.

¹⁰² Rahnema, and Nomani, (The Secular Miracle, 140)Google Scholar place Talegani's views in line with those of Sadr. Talegani, however, remains quite vague on the issue of general social welfare and limits of ownership. For example, according to Talegani, one's ownership should be limited to the extent that it is put to “useful and productive” purposes (Estam va Malekiyat, 141).Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Ibid., 207.

¹⁰⁴ Ibid., 208.

¹⁰⁵ Talegani, Mahmood, Partovi a: Quran, Vols. 16 (Tehran: Enteshar, 1967–1973), see also his “Tabyin-e Resalat Baray-e Qiyam ba Qest” (1979)Google Scholar and other essays and sermons, in Majmo'eh-e Goftarha-ye Pedar Talegani (Mojahedin-e Kalq-e Iran, 1979).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ Sadr, , Eqtesad-e Ma, vol. 1, 244.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Ibid., 235. Similar comments may be found on pages 404 and 428.

¹⁰⁸ Vardasebi, Abuzar, Jazmiyat-e Falsafeh-ye Hezbi (Tehran: Qalam, 1979), 145–47.Google Scholar In this book Vardasebi refutes the claim that Islam is a class-based religion, as stated by Petrushevsky, I. P. in Islam in Iran, translated from Russian by Evans, Hubert (London: Athlone Press, 1985).Google Scholar

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¹¹¹ Ibid., 76–77.

¹¹² Ibid., 76.

¹¹³ Ibid., 79.

¹¹⁴ Ibid., 137–8,273.

¹¹⁵ Ibid., 134–5, 152.

¹¹⁶ Ibid., 90.

¹¹⁷ Ibid., 315.

¹¹⁸ Banisadr, Abolhasan, Egtesad-e Towhidi (n. p: 02 1979). In the political economy literature in Iran, accumulation (anbasht) is recognized as a Marxist term. Banisadr, an avid anti-Marxist, relies heavily on Quranic terms with similar meanings in political economy. Instead of anbasht, he uses takathor, an Arabic word with the same meaning, and the title of sura CII in the Quran.Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ Perroux, Francois, L' Economie de XXe siècle (Paris: Press Universitaires de France, 1969).Google Scholar

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¹²² Ibid., ix.

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¹²⁴ Ibid., xi.

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¹²⁷ Ibid. 243–4.

¹²⁸ Ibid., 230.

¹²⁹ Ibid., 232.

¹³⁰ Ibid., 244.

¹³¹ Ibid., 320.

¹³² Ibid., 320–1.

¹³³ Ibid., 267.

¹³⁴ I use the word conservative here to refer to laissez-faire economic approach, in contrast to the terms liberal, suggesing a policy of state intervention, and radical, meaning some form of socialism. In this analysis the term conservative is also appropriate from the jurisprudential perspective. The approach discussed here is based on the traditional and prevailing interpretations of Islamic jurisprudence.

¹³⁵ See Ayatollah Khomeini's statement to the representatives of Islamic Council of the Universities, on April 21, 1980, Kayhan April 22, 1980Google Scholar and reprinted in [Rohollah Khomeini], Payamha va Sokhanraniha-ye Emam Khomeini, vol. 1 (Tehran: Moasseseh-ye Entesharati va Tahgigati-ye Noor, 1980). 36–38.Google Scholar

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¹³⁹ Ibid., 81.

¹⁴⁰ Ibid., 82.

¹⁴¹ Ibid., 90.

¹⁴² Ibid., 52.

¹⁴³ Ibid., 91.

¹⁴⁴ Ibid., 94.

¹⁴⁵ Ibid., 95.

¹⁴⁶ Ibid., 126 and 154. The Modarressin also see no objection in selling for a price what one acquires from nature in excess of his or her needs. For example, one may sell the water that one gets from a well if it is in excess of his/her needs. Ibid., 171–3.

¹⁴⁷ Ibid., 126.

¹⁴⁸ Ibid., 143–44.

¹⁴⁹ Ibid., 274.

¹⁵⁰ Ibid., 202–10.

¹⁵¹ Ibid., 271–5.

¹⁵² Ibid., 143–4.

¹⁵³ Ibid., 186–7 and 274.

¹⁵⁴ Ibid., 301.

¹⁵⁵ Ibid., 303.

¹⁵⁶ Ibid., 288. For statements in praise of merchants in The Quran, see Rodinson, Maxime, Islam and Capitalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1978), 16–17.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁷ DHHD, Daramadi, 143.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁸ Ibid., 302–3.

¹⁵⁹ Ibid. 343 and 353–5.

¹⁶⁰ Ibid., 305.

¹⁶¹ Ibid., 286 and 353.

¹⁶² Ibid., 308.

¹⁶³ Ibid., 117–8.

¹⁶⁴ Ibid., 382–90.

¹⁶⁵ Ibid., 292–4.

¹⁶⁶ Ibid., 393.

¹⁶⁷ Ibid., 396.

¹⁶⁸ See Aghnides, Nicolas P., Mohammedan Theories of Finance with an Introduction to Mohammedan Law and a Bibliography (New York: AMS Press, 1969);Google Scholar and Schact, Joseph, An Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982).Google Scholar For a brief summary of fundamentals of Islamic jurisprudence, see Behdad, , “Property Rights,” Appendix.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁹ Mutahhari, , 'Ellal-e Garayesh be Maddigari, 209–10.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁰ Kayhan, June 19, 1979.Google Scholar

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¹⁷⁶ Mutahhari, Murtaza, “Sarmayehdari, Dorane Towlid-e Mashini!,” in Kayhan Nava'i (12 3, 1986).Google Scholar

¹⁷⁷ Mutahhari, Murtaza, “Mashin; Sakhteh-ye Tarikh,” in Kayhan Hava'i (12 10, 1986). Mutahhar, however does not accept formation of surplus value by labor even in the earlier form of capitalism.Google Scholar

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¹⁸⁰ Ibid., 191–2.

¹⁸¹ Ibid., The publisher's note indicates that this book was published in 100,000 copies. The usual run for books in Iran is about 5,000 to 10,000 copies.

¹⁸² [Khomeini, Rohollah], Payara-e Enqelab, vol. 1 (Tehran: Mo'asseseh-ye Farhangi, 1982), 102–3;Google Scholar and idem,Payam va Sokhanraniha-ye Emam Khomeini, vol. 1, 34.Google Scholar

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¹⁸⁸ Ibid., 49.

¹⁸⁹ Ibid.

¹⁹⁰ Ibid., 132.

¹⁹¹ Khomeini, , Sahifeh-e Noor, vol. 2, p. 212 (10/2/1979-date of declaration). All references to Sahifeh-e Noor are from Mazhini, “Emam va Eqtesad-e Eslami.”Google Scholar

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¹⁹⁵ [Khomeini, ], Sahifeh-e Noor, vol. 8, 36(6/6/1979).Google Scholar

¹⁹⁶ Ibid., vol. 17, 246 (5/8/83).

¹⁹⁷ [Khomeini, Rohollah], Payam-e Engelab, Majmo'eh-e Pavamha va Bavanat-e Hairat-e Emam Khomeini, vol. I (Spring 1979) (Tehran: Resa, 1984), 84. (This is a continuation of the series cited above. The volumes in the previous series are numbered 1–4.)Google Scholar

¹⁹⁸ [Khomeini, ], Pavam-e Enqelab, vol. III (Fall/Winter 1979/1980), 126.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁹ Ibid.

²⁰⁰ DHHD, Daramedi, 189.Google Scholar

²⁰¹ The content of the talk was publicized in a Friday prayer sermon by MosaviArdebili, Ayatollah, then the Chief of the Supreme Court (Divan-e Ali-ve Keshvar). See Kayhan (November 9, 1985).Google Scholar

²⁰² Mazhini, a Khomeini follower, pointed out that Khomeini accepts capital and rejects capitalism. See Mazhini, Mohsen, “Sarmayeh, Sarmayehda? va Sarmayehdaran,” in Kayhan (06 9, 1992).Google Scholar

²⁰³ [Khomeini, Rohollah], Imam Khomeini's Last Will and Testament (English translation) (Washington, D.C.: Interests Section of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Embassy of Algeria, n. d. [1990]), 36.Google Scholar

²⁰⁴ Ibid., 58.

²⁰⁵ Ibid., 55.

²⁰⁶ Ibid., 55–56.

²⁰⁷ Ibid.

²⁰⁸ Khomeini, , “Islamic Government,” 64.Google Scholar

²⁰⁹ See Behdad, Sohrab, “The Political Economy of Islamic Planning in Iran,” in Hooshang Amirahmadi and Manoucher Parvin, Post-Revolutionary Iran (Boulder: West View Press, 1988).Google Scholar

²¹⁰ Ruznameh Rasmi-ye Keshvar, no. 10092, October 26. 1979 and no. 10238, April 22, 1980.Google Scholar

²¹¹ Kayhan (October 24, 1988).Google Scholar

²¹² See Behdad, Sohrab, “Foreign Exchange Gap, Structural Constraints, and the Political Economy of Exchange Rate Determination in Iran,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 20:1 (02 1988);Google Scholar“Winners and Losers of the Iranian Revolution; A Study in Income Distribution,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 21:3 (08 1989);Google Scholar and “The Structure of Production and Employment in Post-Revolutionary Iran: An Examination of Involution and De-industrialization Theses,” in The Economy of Islamic Iran: Between State and Market (Paris: Centre National de Ia Recherche Scientifique [forthcoming]).Google Scholar

²¹³ See an interview with Tavakkoli, Ahmad, a candidate for presidency of Iran, Kayhan (May 25, 1993).Google Scholar

²¹⁴ Kuran, Timur, “Economic Impact of Islamic Fundamentalism,” in Marty, Martin E. and Appleby, R. Scott, eds., Fundamentalism and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 306.Google Scholar

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²¹⁶ [Khomeini, ]. Pavam-e Enqelab, vol. 4, 31.Google Scholar

²¹⁷ Ibid., vol. I, 29.

²¹⁸ Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

²¹⁹ See Mayer, Ann Elizabeth, “The Fundamentalist Impact on Law, Politics, and Constitution in Iran, Pakistan, and Sudan,” in Marty, and Appleby, , eds., Fundamentalism and the State, ch. 7;Google Scholar and Kuran, , “The Economic Impact of Islamic Fundamentalism.”Google Scholar