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⁷ Fernando Coronil strongly makes this point in “Beyond Occidentalism: Toward Nonimperial Geohistorical Categories,” Cultural Anthropology 11, 1 (1996): 51–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸ A clear exception to this criticism is Engerman, David C., Modernization from the other Shore: American Intellectuals and the Romance of Russian Development (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003)Google Scholar. In the literature on British colonial development, see Cooper, Frederick, “Modernizing Bureaucrats, Backward Africans, and the Development Concept,” in Cooper, Frederick and Packard, Randall M., eds., International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

⁹ For example, Arrighi, Giovanni, Adam Smith in Beijing: Lineages of the Twenty-First Century (New York: Verso, 2007), ch. 1Google Scholar; Davis, Mike, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World (New York: Verso, 2001)Google Scholar; Pomeranz, Kenneth, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ I explore the history of ideas about mortality patterns, where colonialism reputedly made its mark, but critical intellectual histories of demographic transition theory have thus far tended to focus on the question of fertility decline. See Greenhalgh, Susan, “The Social Construction of Population Science: An Intellectual, Institutional, and Political History of Twentieth-Century Demography,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 38, 1 (1996): 26–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Szreter, “Idea of Demographic Transition”; Hodgson, Dennis, “Orthodoxy and Revisionism in American Demography,” Population and Development Review 14, 4 (1988): 541–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and “Demography as Social Science and Policy Science,” Population and Development Review 9, 1 (1983): 1–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sharpless, John, “Population Science, Private Foundations, and Development Aid,” in Cooper, Frederick and Packard, Randall M., eds., International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Thornton, Arland, Reading History Sideways: The Fallacy and Enduring Impact of the Developmental Paradigm on Family Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Demeny, Paul, “Social Science and Population Policy,” Population and Development Review 14, 3 (1988): 451–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an analysis of the trends in the scholarship on population see Bashford, Alison, “Nation, Empire, Globe: The Spaces of Population Debate in the Interwar Years,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 49, 1 (2007): 170–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁵ I am drawing here on the insights of Michael Cowen and Robert Shenton as well as Gillian Hart (who takes inspiration from Karl Polanyi). They have suggested that development ideas and institutions have emerged in various moments to protect society from the chaos of policies rooted in the liberal ideal of the self-regulating market. Cowen, Michael and Shenton, Robert, “The Invention of Development,” in Crush, Jonathan, ed., Power of Development (New York: Routledge, 1995)Google Scholar; Hart, Gillian, “Development Critiques in the 1990s: Culs De Sac and Promising Paths,” Progress in Human Geography 25, 4 (2001): 649–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁸ Ibid.

¹⁹ Arnold, David, The Problem of Nature: Environment, Culture and European Expansion (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), ch. 7Google Scholar; and, ed. Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500–1900 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996), 1–19Google Scholar. On India in particular, see Arnold's, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 28–43Google Scholar; and Harrison, Mark, Public Health in British India: Anglo-Indian Preventive Medicine 1859–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 36–37Google Scholar.

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²¹ Arnold, Colonizing the Body, 64.

²² Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the Sanitary State of the Army in India [hereafter Royal Sanitary Commission Report], Parliamentary Papers (Hereafter PP), vol. 1, 1863 (Cmd. 3184), lxxxii. See also Florence Nightingale, “How People May Live and not Die in India,” read by Dr. Scoresby Jackson at the Edinburgh meeting of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, Oct. 1863, in Vallée, Gérard and McDonald, Lynn, eds., Florence Nightingale on Health in India, (Waterloo: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

²³ Royal Sanitary Commission Report, xxxvi–xxxcii, xxic, lxxx. Also see discussion in Arnold, Colonizing the Body, 67–72.

²⁴ Quoted in Parkes, Edmund Alexander, A Manual of Practical Hygiene Prepared Especially for Use in the Medical Service of the Army (London: Jon Churchill & Sons, 1864), 561Google Scholar.

²⁵ Ibid.

²⁶ Arnold, Colonizing the Body, ch. 5; Kumar, Anil, Medicine and the Raj: British Medical Policy in India, 1835–1911 (New Delhi: Sage, 1998), 190–203Google Scholar.

²⁷ Caldwell, “Malthus and the Less Developed World,” 682.

²⁸ Royal Sanitary Commission Report, xxxvii–xlii and lxxix.

²⁹ Harrison, Public Health in British India, 9.

³⁰ Plowden, W. Chichele, Report on the Census of British India Taken on the 17th February 1881 (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1883), 143–44Google Scholar; Marten, J. T., Report on the Census of India, 1921 (Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, India, 1923), 14–15Google Scholar; Hutton, J. H., Report on the Census of India, 1931 (Delhi: Manager of Publications, 1933), 91–92Google Scholar; Davis, Kingsley, The Population of India and Pakistan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951), chs. 6, 7, and 9Google Scholar.

³¹ Salisbury to Governor General of India in Council, 19 July 1777, British Library, London, India Office Records [hereafter IOR], L/E/3/644/103.

³² For example, Report on Sanitary Measures in India [hereafter RSMI] in 1874–75; Together with Miscellaneous Information up to June 1876, vol. VIII, PP, 1876 (C.1615), 143; RSMI in 1878–79: Together with Miscellaneous Information up to June 1880, vol. XII, PP, 1880 (C.2737), 181–82; RSMI in 1889–90, vol. XXIII, PP, 1890–91 (C.6501), 158.

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³⁵ RSMI in 1877–78, 135; see also RSMI in 1878–79, 210. Incidentally, this argument had little to do with the acceptance of germ theory. Nightingale, like Edwin Chadwick who spearheaded sanitary reform in England, strongly resisted the claims of germ theory. The ASC repeatedly stated in its reports that, whether or not it was correct, the theory held little practical value. Policies based on it, like quarantines, were impossible to enforce. Vallée, Gérard and McDonald, Lynn, eds., Florence Nightingale on Health in India (Waterloo: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 2006), 863–65Google Scholar. Report on Sanitary Measures in India, in 1874–75, 149; Report on Sanitary Measures in India in 1889–90, 151, 178; Report on Sanitary Measures in India in 1890–91, vol. XXIV, PP, 1892 (C.6735), 176.

³⁶ RSMI in 1877–78, 190; RSMI in 1879–80; Together with Miscellaneous Information up to June 1881, vol. XIII, PP, 1881 (C.2981), 245.

³⁷ RSMI in 1879–80, 195; RSMI in 1878–79, 169.

³⁸ Cross to the Governor General of India in Council, 10 Jan. 1889, 10, IOR, L/E/3/659/2.

³⁹ “Minute by Colonel Henry Yule,” 10 Dec. 1888, 10, IOR, L/E/3/659/2.

⁴⁰ RSMI in 1877–78, 144, see also 149.

⁴¹ RSMI in 1874–75, 150–51, 163–64; RSMI in 1877–78, 135, 150, 154; RSMI in 1878–79, 130–31, 138; RSMI in 1879–80, 169, 172, 203; RSMI in 1889–90, 168, 169, 170, 172; “Minute by Colonel Henry Yule,” 10 Dec. 1888, IOR, L/E/3/659/2; Cross to Governor General of India in Council, 22 Aug. 1889, IOR, L/E/3/659/59.

⁴² RSMI in 1878–79, 119.

⁴³ This large literature includes Ramanna, Mridula, Western Medicine and Public Health in Colonial Bombay, 1845–1895 (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2002)Google Scholar; Ray, Kabita, History of Public Health: Colonial Bengal, 1921–1947 (Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co., 1998)Google Scholar; Kumar, Medicine and the Raj; Harrison, Public Health in British India; Arnold, Colonizing the Body; Ramasubban, Radhika, “Imperial Health in India, 1857–1900,” in Roy M. MacLeod and Milton James Lewis, eds., Disease, Medicine, and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion (London: Routledge, 1988)Google Scholar; Jeffery, Roger, The Politics of Health in India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988)Google Scholar. For a critique of this literature, highlighting the fractured and changing character of colonial public health policy, see Bhattacharya, Sanjoy, Harrison, Mark, and Worboys, Michael, Fractured States: Smallpox, Public Health and Vaccination Policy in British India 1800–1947 (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 2005)Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ On mortality rates in this period, see Klein, “Death in India.”

⁴⁵ Davis, The Population of India and Pakistan, 35–36. P. N. Mari Bhat has argued that mortality rates were lower than demographers like Davis have suggested (though still very high) because of misstatements of age in the original statistical returns: “Mortality and Fertility in India, 1881–1961: A Reassessment,” in Dyson, Tim, ed., India's Historical Demography: Studies in Famine, Disease and Society (London: Curzon Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

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⁴⁷ Baines, J. A., General Report on the Census of India, 1891 (London: Printed for the Indian Government by Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1893), 58–59, 64Google Scholar.

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⁷⁰ Bradlaugh to Digby, 28 Mar. 1890, IOR, MSS Eur D767/7 (William Digby Papers).

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⁷³ Hunter to Birdwood, 10 Oct. 1888, MSS Eur F216/8 (George Birdwood Papers).

⁷⁴ Hyndman to Besant, 5 June 1914, IOR, MSS Eur C888 (Annie Besant Papers); Soloway, Richard A., Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth-Century Britain (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 89–90Google Scholar.

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⁸⁶ Ross, Diaries and Travel Notes [hereafter DTN]: China, vol. 1, 12 Feb.–16 Mar. 1910, pp. 19–21, 27–33, 73, 109, 111, 141–43, 159, 165, 177, WHS, Ross Papers, box 26, folder 23; see also Ross, DTN: India, vol. 2, 1924–1925, p. 136, WHS, Ross Papers, box 28, folder 6; Ross, Edward Alsworth, The Changing Chinese (New York: The Century Co., 1911), 117Google Scholar.

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⁸⁸ Ross, DTN: India, vol. 2, 1924–1925, p. 11, WHS, Ross Papers, box 28, folder 6.

⁸⁹ Ross, Edward Alsworth, Standing Room Only? (New York: The Century Co., 1927), 93Google Scholar. See also Ross, DTN: India, vol. 2, 1924–1925, pp. 134–35, WHS, Ross Papers, box 28, folder 6.

⁹⁰ Ross, DTN: India, vol. 1, 1924–1935, pp. 107–9, WHS, Ross Papers, box 28, folder 5; Ross, DTN: India, vol. 2, 1924–1925, p. 24, WHS, Ross Papers, box 28, folder 6.

⁹¹ Ross, Standing Room Only?, 55, 90, 91, 95, 96, 143, 288.

⁹² Ross, DTN: India, vol. 2, 1924–1925, pp. 144–45, WHS, Ross Papers, box 28, folder 6.

⁹³ Ross, Standing Room Only?, 285–313; Ross, DTN: India, vol. 2, 1924–1925, p. 140, WHS, Ross Papers, box 28, folder 6.

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⁹⁷ Several studies under the Third Republic anticipated later explanations of fertility transition, though they had little to say about mortality. These include: Landry, Adolphe, La Révolution Démographique: Études Et Essais Sur Les Problèmes De La Population (Paris: Librairie du Recueil Sirey, société anonyme, 1934)Google Scholar; Bertillon, Jacques, La Dépopulation De La France, Ses Conséquences, Ses Causes, Mesures À Prendre Pour La Combattre (Paris: F. Alcan, 1911)Google Scholar; Dumont, Arsène, Dépopulation Et Civilisation: Étude Démographique (Paris: Lecrosnier et Babé, 1890)Google Scholar; Bertillon, Louis, “Natalité (Démographie),” in Dechambre, A., ed., Dictionnaire Encyclopédique des Sciences Medicales (1876)Google Scholar. There is a large literature on the panic over French fertility decline. For analyses of the ideas of historical demographers, see Surkis, Judith, Sexing the Citizen: Morality and Masculinity in France, 1870–1920 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006)Google Scholar; Cole, Joshua, The Power of Large Numbers: Population, Politics, and Gender in Nineteenth-Century France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Offen, Karen, “Depopulation, Nationalism, and Feminism in Fin-De-Siecle France,” American Historical Review (1984): 648–76CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; McLaren, Angus, Sexuality and Social Order: The Debate over the Fertility of Women and Workers in France, 1770–1920 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982)Google Scholar; Charbit, Yves, Du Malthusianisme Au Populationnisme: Les Économistes Français Et La Population, 1840–1870 (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1981)Google Scholar.

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¹⁰⁰ G. Mesnard, “L'Algérie Restera-t-elle Française?” 11 Dec. 1936, Les Annales Coloniales: 1–2. Economist René Bertrand described Algeria's population patterns within a similar framework, in “L'Algérie Est-Elle Un Pays Riche?” Supplément Economique de la Revue Algeria, Apr. 1939: 94–98.

¹⁰¹ Ittman, “Demography as a Policy Science,” 421–26, 30, 39; “Transcript from a Meeting of the Commission on Higher Education in West Africa Held on December 9, 1943 in Dover House, Whitehall,” London School of Economics Archives, London, L B/3/12 (Alexander Carr-Saunders Papers).

¹⁰² Cooper, “Modernizing Bureaucrats”; Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine, Hemery, Daniel, and Piel, Jean, Pour Une Histoire Du Développement: États, Sociétés, Développement (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1988)Google Scholar; Constantine, Stephen, The Making of British Colonial Development Policy 1914–1940 (London: Cass, 1984)Google Scholar.

¹⁰³ Ittman, “Demography as a Policy Science,” 424–25; Lafitte, François, “The Work of the Population Policies Committee,” Eugenics Review 31, 1 (1939): 47–56Google ScholarPubMed; Population Policies Committee, “General Principles of a Population Policy,” 15 May 1939, London School of Economics Archives, London, A/2/27/I/A (Carr-Saunders Papers).

¹⁰⁴ Ittman, “Demography as a Policy Science”; Ittman, K., “The Colonial Office and the Population Question in the British Empire, 1918–62,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 27, 3 (1999): 55–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰⁵ Carr-Saunders to Ross, 26 Apr. 1930, WHS, Ross Papers, reel 17; Carr-Saunders to Ross, 16 Apr. 1926, WHS, Ross Papers, reel 16.

¹⁰⁶ Szreter, “Idea of Demographic Transition”; Thompson, Warren S., “Population,” American Journal of Sociology 34, 6 (1929): 959–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ Carr-Saunders, A. M., World Population, Past Growth and Present Trends (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936), chs. 2 and 3Google Scholar; Davis, “World Demographic Transition,” 2; Notestein, “Population,” 38, 54–55.

¹⁰⁸ Rostow, W. W. and Kennedy, Michael, Theorists of Economic Growth from David Hume to the Present: With a Perspective on the Next Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 201Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁹ Carr-Saunders, World Population, 291–92, 93.

¹¹⁰ Chakravarty, Sukhamoy, Development Planning: The Indian Experience (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 14Google Scholar; Alterman, Jon B., Hopes Dashed: Egypt and American Foreign Assistance, 1952–1956 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 16–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹² Szreter, “Idea of Demographic Transition,” 673. On the links between modernization theory and various post-war theories of fertility change, see Greenhalgh, Susan, “Anthropology Theorizes Reproduction: Integrating Practice, Political Economic, and Feminist Perspectives,” in Greenhalgh, Susan, ed., Situating Fertility: Anthropology and Demographic Inquiry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the intellectual significance of Parsons to modernization theory, see Gilman, Mandarins of the Future, 72–112.

¹¹³ Gilman, Mandarins of the Future, 103–7.

¹¹⁴ Riesman, David, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), 8, 9Google Scholar.

¹¹⁵ Michel Foucault, Security, Territory, Population, 70–74.

¹¹⁶ Gilman, Mandarins of the Future, 34.

¹¹⁷ Alfred Sauvy, “Trois Mondes, Une Planète,” L'Observateur, 14 Aug. 1952: 14. For an analysis of the three worlds idea and its significance to modernization theory, see Pletsch, Carl E., “The Three Worlds, or the Division of Social Scientific Labor, Circa 1950–1975,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 23, 4 (1981): 565–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹¹⁹ Hodgson, “Orthodoxy and Revisionism,” 550; Szreter, “Idea of Demographic Transition,” 666–67; Caldwell, John C. and Caldwell, Pat, Limiting Population Growth and the Ford Foundation Contribution (Dover, N.H.: F. Pinter, 1986), 13–15Google Scholar.

¹²⁰ Notestein, “Population,” 51–52; Davis, “World Demographic Transition,” 6.

¹²¹ On modernization theory and the anti-colonial tradition, see Latham, Modernization as Ideology.