¹ Bendix, R., ‘Tradition and Modernity Reconsidered’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. IX (1967),Google Scholar an excellent historical and critical review; Shils, E., ‘Tradition and Liberty: Antinomy and Interdependence’, Ethics, Vol. XLVIII, No. 3 (1958);Google ScholarShils, E., ‘Political Development in the New States’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, II (1959–1960);Google ScholarHoselitz, B. F., ‘Tradition and Economic Growth’, in Braibanti, R. and Spengler, J. J., eds., Tradition, Values and Socio-Economic Development (Duke, 1961);Google ScholarThrupp, S., ‘Tradition and Development: a Choice of Views’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. VI (1963);Google ScholarThrupp, S., ‘A Skirmish with Tradition’(MS.).Google Scholar

² Wolf, E. R., ‘Understanding Civilizations’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. IX (1967);Google ScholarRedfield, R., The Primitive World and Its Transformations (Cornell, 1953);Google ScholarRedfield, R., Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago, 1956);Google ScholarRedfield, R. and Singer, M., ‘The Cultural Role of Cities’, Economic Development and Cultural Change (1954).Google Scholar

³ Singer, M., ‘The Cultural Pattern of Indian Civilization’, Far Eastern Quarterly (1955);Google Scholar‘The Great Tradition in a Metropolitan Center: Madras’, Journal of American Folklore (1958);Google Scholar‘The Radha-Krishna Bhajans of Madras City’ in Singer, M., ed., Krishna: Myths, Rites and Attitudes (East-West Center Press, 1966);Google Scholar‘The Indian Joint Family in Modern Industry’, in Singer, M. and Cohn, B. S., eds., Structure and Change in Indian Society (Aldine, 1968);Google ScholarSinger, M., When a Great Tradition Modernizes, Studies in Madras (Praeger, forthcoming).Google Scholar

⁴ Srinivas, M. N., ‘The Cohesive Role of Sankritization’, in Mason, P., ed., India and Ceylon: Unity and Diversity (Oxford, 1967);Google ScholarSrinivas, M. N., Social Change in Modern India (Berkeley, 1966);Google ScholarSrinivas, M. N., ‘A Note On Sanskritization and Westernization’, in Caste in Modern India (Bombay, 1962);Google ScholarSrinivas, M. N., Religion and Society Among the Coorgs of South India (Oxford, 1952).Google Scholar

⁵ See Srinivas, M. N., Social Change in Modern India, pp. 6 ff.;Google Scholar also the articles by Srinivas, Rowe, Lynch and Marriott in Singer, M. and Cohn, B. S., eds., Structure and Change in Indian Society.Google Scholar

⁶ Raghavan, V., ‘Variety and Integration in the Pattern of Indian Culture’, Far Eastern Quarterly, (1956);Google ScholarSinger, M., ed., Traditional India, Structure and Change (1958, 1959);Google ScholarStaal, J. F., ‘Sanskrit and Sanskritization’, Journal of Asian Studies (1963);CrossRefGoogle ScholarvanBuitenen, J. A. B., ‘On the Archaism of the Bhagavata Purana’ in Singer, M., ed., Krishna: Myths, Rites and Attitudes (East-West Center Press, 1966 and University of Chicago Press, 1968).Google Scholar

⁷ Mason, P., op. cit.Google Scholar

⁸ Bailey, F., Caste and the Economic Frontier (Manchester, 1957);Google ScholarOrans, M., The Santal, A Tribe in Search of a Great Tradition (Wayne, 1965);Google ScholarHardgrave, R., The Nadars of Tamilnad (California, 1969);Google ScholarLynch, O., The Politics of Untouchability (Columbia, 1970);Google ScholarSilverberg, J., ed., Social Mobility in the Caste System in India, Comparative Studies in Society and History (Mouton, 1969);Google ScholarPocock, D. F., ‘Sociologies: Urban and Rural’, Contributions to Indian Sociology, Vol. 4 (1960).Google Scholar

⁹ Dumont, L., ‘World Renunciation in Indian Religions’, Contributions to Indian Sociology, Vol. 4 (1960).Google Scholar For the relation of Gandhi's asceticism to social reform see Singer, M., ‘Cultural Values in India's Economic Development’, Annals (1955);Google ScholarL. I., and Rudolph, S. H., The Modernity of Tradition, Part Two (Chicago, 1967);Google ScholarErikson, E., Gandhi's Truth (Norton & Co., 1969).Google Scholar

¹⁰ For the distinction between ‘orthogenetic’ and ‘heterogenetic’ changes see Redfield, R. and Singer, M., ‘The Cultural Role of Cities’.Google Scholar

¹¹ Silappatikāram (the Ankle Bracelet) by Prince Ilango Adigal, tr. by Danielou, A. (London, 1967).Google Scholar A. K. Ramanujan has suggested that Puhār and Madurai as described in the Silappatikāram are literary representations of ‘heterogenetic’ and ‘orthogenetic’ cities respectively. See his paper ‘Toward an Anthology of City Images’ (MS., 1969).

¹² For Srinivas's, M. N. account of ‘normal ritual status’ see his Social Change in Modern India, p. 121 and the Coorg study, pp. 106–7.Google Scholar

¹³ The material on Yavanas has been kindly made available to me by my colleague, Kamil Zvelebil. See also his article on ‘The Yavanas in Old Tamil Literature’, Charisteria Orientalia (Prague, 1956).Google Scholar A. K. Ramanujan has called my attention to a linguistic process similar to ‘ritual neutralization’ which is also called ‘neutralization’. He believes that linguistic neutralization plays an analogously important role in the formation of new colloquial standards of speech from literary and colloquial Tamil. See his paper "‘The Structure of Variation: a Study in Caste Dialects’, esp. pp. 470–2 in Singer, M. and Cohn, B. S., eds., Structure and Change in Indian Society.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Dasgupta, S., A History of Indian Philosophy (Cambridge, 1922). I am indebted to F. Staal for this reference to the Sankara theory. See also his article on Sanskrit and Sanskritization, p. 269.Google Scholar

¹⁵ For a field study of how a living caste of genealogists and mythographers records genealogies and relates them to mythical ancestors see A. M. Shah and R. G. Shroff, The Vahivancā Bārots of Gujerat, and Foreword by Srinivas, M. N. in Singer, M., ed., Traditional India, Structure and Change (American Folklore Society, Philadelphia, 1959).Google Scholar See also Weber, M., The Religion of India, pp. 9–11;Google ScholarSinha, S., ‘State Formation and Rajput Myth in Tribal Central India’, Man in India, Vol. 42 (1962);Google ScholarHitchcock, J. T., ‘The Idea of the Martial Rajput’ in Traditional India;Google ScholarHivale, S., The Pardhans of the Upper Narbada Valley (Oxford, 1946);Google ScholarCohn, B. S., ‘The Pasts of an Indian Village’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. III (1961);Google ScholarFürer-Haimendorf, C. von, ‘The Historical Value of Indian Bardic Literature’, in Philips, C. H., ed., Historians of India, Pakistan, and Ceylon (Oxford, 1961).Google Scholar

¹⁶ In Tamil putitu ‘that which is new or wonderful’ also refers to the first sheaves of a rice crop; putitu ākkutal means ‘to modernize, to make new’. Putumai, putivatu, putai are words for ‘newness, novelty’, ‘anything new’, ‘novelty’, respectively. Putuppalakkam, ‘new habit, usage, fashion’, does not mean a renovated old habit or usage but that something not previously habitual or a matter of usage has become so. To ‘traditionalize’, ‘to make old’, is expressed by paṇmai ākkutal, palamai ākkutal. Linguistic information from K. Zvelebil and A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary by Burrow and Emeneau.

¹⁷ On ‘cultural policy’ and ‘cultural policy makers’ see Singer, M., ‘The Cultural Pattern of Indian Civilization’, p. 30,Google ScholarTraditional India, IX, XVII–XVIII, pp. 141 ff;Google ScholarMarriott, M., ‘Cultural Policy in the New States’, in Geertz, C., ed., Old Societies and New States (1963);Google ScholarRedfield, R., The Little Community (Chicago, 1955), pp. 106–8.Google Scholar

¹⁸ For a history of the Dravidian movement see Hardgrave, R. L. Jr, The Dravidian Movement (Bombay, 1965);Google ScholarIrschick, E. F., Politics and Social Conflict in South India (Berkeley, 1969),Google Scholar esp. Chap. 8; Rudolph, L., ‘Urban Life and Populist Radicalism; Dravidian Politics in Madras’, Journal of Asian Studies (1961);CrossRefGoogle ScholarHardgrave, R., ‘Religion, Politics and the D.M.K’, in Smith, D. E., ed., South Asian Politics and Religion (Princeton, 1966);Google ScholarZvelebil, K., The Smile of Murugan, A History of Tamil Literature, (M.S.) esp. Chap. 18, ‘Tamil Renaissance’.Google Scholar

¹⁹ K. Zvelebil, personal communication; for another interpretation, see Basham, A. L., ‘Some reflections on Dravidians and Aryans’, Bulletin of the Institute of Traditional Cultures (Madras, 1963).Google Scholar

²⁰ The information on historical Tamil usage has been obtained from K. Zvelebil. For ancient Tamil poetry and poetics see Ramanujan, A. K., The Interior Landscape (Bloomington, 1967),Google Scholar and Zwelebil, K., op. cit.Google Scholar

²¹ Dasgupta, , op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 53, 466–8.Google Scholar For a contemporary Madras interpretation of advaita vedanta in terms of the different ‘paths’ see Raghavan, V., ‘Some Leading Ideas of Hindu Thought’, The Vedanta Kesari (Madras, 1955),Google Scholar quoted in Traditional India, p. 146.Google Scholar

²² Datta, D. M., ‘Epistemological Methods in Indian Philosophy’, in Moore, C. E., ed., The Indian Mind (East-West Center Press, Honolulu, 1967), pp. 119–20.Google Scholar

²³ Singer, M., ‘The Radha-Krishna Bhajans of Madras City’, in Krishna: Myths, Rites and Attitudes (East-West Press, 1966 and University of Chicago Press, 1969), pp. 126–7.Google Scholar

²⁴ Geertz, C., The Social History of an Indonesian Town (M.I.T. Press, 1965), esp. p. 152.Google Scholar

²⁵ Weber, M., The Religion of India (The Free Press, 1958), esp. pp. 11–20;Google Scholar see also his The Sociology of Religion (Beacon Press, 1963), pp. 108–17, on the Jews as a ‘pariah people’.Google Scholar

²⁶ Weber, M., The Religion of India, p. 112.Google Scholar

²⁷ Ibid. pp. 111–12. On the relation of European medieval religious law to the taking of interest, see Nelson, B., The Idea of Usury, From Tribal Brotherhood to Universal Otherhood, second ed. (University of Chicago Press, 1969).Google Scholar

²⁸ Weber, , The Religion of India, p. 30.Google Scholar

²⁹ Ibid. p. 325.

³⁰ Geertz, C., Agricultural Involution (Berkeley, 1963), esp. p. 61;Google Scholar and The Social History of an Indonesian Town (M.I.T. Press, 1965), esp. p. 54;Google ScholarGeertz, C., Peddlers and Princes (Chicago, 1933), p. 139.Google Scholar In this passage Geertz uses ‘compartmentalized’ and ‘compartmentalization’ to refer to three processes which I have called ‘enclavement’ (the ‘sharp social and cultural segregation of both traders and trading’), ‘ritual neutralization’ (trading develops as ‘an interstitial pursuit, one to which the values of the wider society are held by common agreement not to apply’), and ‘compartmentalization’ in the sense that ‘the nearly total insulation of commercial behavior from the general nexus of cultural activities’ provides ‘a preserve for the exercise of economic rationality independently of non-economic constraints’. Geertz also sees a normative ethical code developing from the combined operation of these processes, at least in the situation of the bazaar economy if not at the level of more complex industrial organization.

Geertz's development of the ‘compartmentalization’ theory is, so far as I know, independent of mine. My own interest in this concept was first aroused by the widely noted observation of ‘modern’ Indians adhering to ‘traditional’ practices and beliefs, and the usual interpretations of this as somehow paradoxical, anomalous and contradictory. When I found that most Indians I met did not experience this coexistence of the ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’ as a cultural contradiction or even a conflict, it seemed to me that the compartmentalization theory offered a better explanation than the theory of ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’ societies as mutually exclusive types with mixed cases interpreted as ‘transitional’ from the ‘traditional’ to the ‘modern’.

The ‘compartmentalization’ theory is implicit in Edward Shils’s study of The Intellectual Between Tradition and Modernity: The Indian Situation, Comparative Studies in Society and History Supplement I (Mouton, 1961);Google Scholar R. S. Khare has applied it explicitly to an analysis of the home-office adjustments of Kanya–Kubja Brahmans (see CSSH, Vol. XIII (1971)).Google Scholar

An extended effort to apply the classical dichotomous theory of ‘modern’ and ‘traditional’ societies to India will be found in Myrdal, G., The Asian Drama (Random House, 1968), esp. Vol. I,Google Scholar Prologue and Part I. On the psychology of compartmentalization see Inkeles, A., ‘Making Modern Men’, The American Journal of Sociology, 75 (1969).Google Scholar See also: McGee, T. G., The Southeast Asian City (Praeger, 1967),Google Scholar and Murphey, R., ‘Traditionalism and Colonialism; Changing Urban Roles in Asia’, Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. XXIX, No. 1 (11, 1969).Google Scholar

³¹ Sylvia Thrupp has introduced the phrase ‘temporal ethnocentrism’ in this sense. See her ‘A Skirmish with Tradition’ (MS.). On the luxury trade with the orient see Wheeler, R. M., Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers (London, Bell, 1954);Google Scholar and Wheatley, P., The Golden Khersonese (University of Malaya Press, 1961);Google ScholarSinger, M., ‘Passage to More than India: A Sketch of Changing European and American Images of India’, in Language and Areas: Studies Presented to George V. Bobrinskoy (Chicago, 1967).Google Scholar

³² Plumb, J. H., The Death of the Past (Boston, 1970).Google Scholar