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Beyond Naxalbari: A Comparative Analysis of Maoist Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Independent India

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 September 2012

Jonathan Kennedy  and
Sunil Purushotham
Jonathan Kennedy*
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology, University of Cambridge
Sunil Purushotham
Affiliation:
Faculty of History, University of Cambridge
*
[email protected]
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Abstract

This paper demonstrates that there have been three distinct waves of Maoist insurgency in India since 1947. We construct an ideal typical model of Maoist insurgency that is used to compare the roles played by local populations, insurgents, and state counterinsurgency measures across space and time. This allows us to demonstrate that the commonly accepted narrative of Indian Maoist insurgency must be fundamentally rethought. The Naxalbari outbreak in 1967 and the subsequent insurgency in West Bengal is generally agreed to be the central point in the history of Maoist insurgency in India. But our analysis demonstrates that it was comparatively short-lived and atypical. We instead trace the genealogy of Indian Maoism to Telengana in the late 1940s. The common feature linking all three waves is the persistence of insurgent activity among various tribal or adivasi communities in the central Indian “tribal belt.” Their overriding grievances are the historically iniquitous relationships produced by the processes of state and market expansion that have incorporated and subordinated adivasi populations who previously had a large degree of socioeconomic and political autonomy. The state's counterinsurgency strategy has consisted of violence combined with developmental and governance interventions. This has pushed Maoist insurgency to the margins of Indian political life but has been unable to eliminate insurgent activity or address the fundamental grievances of adivasis. We conclude by arguing that Maoist insurgency in India should not be considered as crime to be resolved by state violence, or as an economic problem requiring the intensification of developmental measures, but as a matter of politics.

Type
Research Article
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 54 , Issue 4 , October 2012 , pp. 832 - 862
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 2012

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References

REFERENCES

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India Office Records, British Library, London.Google Scholar
Indian Official Documents Collection, Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.Google Scholar
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Chatterjee, Partha. 2008. Democracy and Economic Transformation in India. Economic and Political Weekly 43, 16: 53–62.Google Scholar
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Duyker, Edward. 1987. Tribal Guerrillas: The Santals of West Bengal and the Naxalite Movement. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
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Galula, David. 2006 [1964]. Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice, London: Praeger Security International.Google Scholar
Gleditsch, Nils Petter, Wallensteen, Peter, Eriksson, Mikael, Sollenberg, Margareta, and Strand, Håvard. 2002. Armed Conflict 1946–2001: A New Dataset. Journal of Peace Research 39, 5: 615–37.Google Scholar
Gour, Raj Bahadur. 1973. Glorious Telengana Armed Struggle. New Delhi: Communist Party Publication.Google Scholar
Guha, Ramachandra. 2007. Adivasis, Naxalites and Indian Democracy. Economic and Political Weekly 42, 32: 3305–12.Google Scholar
Guha, Ramachandra and Gadgil, Mahdav. 1989. State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India. Past and Present 123: 141–77.Google Scholar
Hanstad, Tim and Nielsen, Robin. 2004. West Bengal's Bargadars and Landownership. Economic and Political Weekly 39, 8: 853–55.Google Scholar
Harrison, Selig. 1956. Caste and the Andhra Communists. American Political Science Review 50, 2: 378–404.Google Scholar
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Kilcullen, David J. 2010. Counterinsurgency. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kohli, Atul. 1987. The State and Poverty in India: The Politics of Reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kohli, Atul. 2009. Democracy and Development in India: From Socialism to Pro-Business. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kunnath, George J. 2009. Smouldering Dalit Fires in Bihar, India. Dialectical Anthropology 33: 309–25.Google Scholar
Mallick, Ross. 1994. Indian Communism: Opposition, Collaboration, and Institutionalization. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mazumdar, Charu. 1967. It Is Time to Build Up a Revolutionary Party. Liberation 1, 1 (Nov.): 62–79.Google Scholar
Mazumdar, Charu. 1970a. A Few Words about Guerrilla Actions. Liberation 3, 4 (Feb.): 17–23.Google Scholar
Mazumdar, Charu. 1970b. A Few Words to the Revolutionary Students and Youth. Liberation 5, 3 (Mar.): 13–14, 84–91.Google Scholar
McAdam, Douglas M. 1982. Political Process and the Development of the Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Miklian, Jason. 2011. Revolutionary Conflict in Federations: The India Case. Conflict, Security and Development 11, 1: 25–53.Google Scholar
Ministry of Home Affairs. 1971. Annual Report, 1970–71. New Delhi: Government of India. Indian Official Documents Collection, Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Ministry of Home Affairs. 2009. Annual Report, 2008–09. New Delhi: Government of India. Indian Official Documents Collection, Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Ministry of Home Affairs. 2010. Details of State-wise Annual Totals and National Annual Totals from 1980 to 2009. (Right to Information application filed by Purnima Ramanujan in March; copy available from Jonathan Kennedy.)Google Scholar
Ministry of Tribal Affairs. 2006. National Tribal Policy: A Policy for the Scheduled Tribes of India. New Delhi: Government of India. Indian Official Documents Collection, Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Mohanty, Manoranjan. 1977. Revolutionary Violence: A Study of the Maoist Movement in India. New Delhi: Sterling.Google Scholar
Mukherji, Nirmalangshu. 2010. Arms over People: What Have the Maoists Achieved in Dandakaranya? Economic and Political Weekly 45, 25: 16–20.Google Scholar
Oetken, Jennifer. 2009. Counterinsurgency against Naxalites in India. In Ganguly, Sumit and Fidler, David, eds., India and Counterinsurgency: Lessons Learned. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Overstreet, Gene D. and Windmiller, Marshall. 1959. Communism in India. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Padel, Felix. 2009. Sacrificing People: Invasions of a Tribal Landscape. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.Google Scholar
Pavier, Barry. 1981. The Telengana Movement 1944–51. New Delhi: Vikas.Google Scholar
Planning Commission of India. 2008. Development Challenges in Extremist Affected Areas: Report of an Expert Group. New Delhi: Government of India.Google Scholar
Pulla Reddy, Chandra. 1981. The Great Heroic Telengana Struggle. Hyderabad: A Road to Liberation Publication.Google Scholar
Raghavaiah, V. 1971. Tribal Revolts. Nellore: Andhra Rashtra Adimajati Sevak Sangh.Google Scholar
Ramakrishnan, Venkitesh. 2010. Flawed Operation. Frontline 27, 9: 4–9.Google Scholar
Rangaswamy, Amrita. 1974. Making a Village: An Experiment. Economic and Political Weekly 8, 46: 1524–27.Google Scholar
Rao, Chandra Rajeswara. 1971. The Historic Telengana Struggle: Some Useful Lessons from Its Rich Experience. New Delhi: Communist Party of India.Google Scholar
Rao, Devulapalli Venkateswara. 1982 [1949]. Refutation of Wrong Trends Advocating Withdrawal of Telangana Armed Struggle. Hyderabad: Proletarian Line Publications.Google Scholar
Ray, Rabindra. 2002. The Naxalites and Their Ideology. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Reddy, Arutla Ramachandra. 1984. Telengana Struggle: Memoirs. Rao, B. Narsing, trans. Delhi: People's Publishing House.Google Scholar
Roosa, John. 2001. Passive Revolution Meets Peasant Revolution: Indian Nationalism and the Telangana Revolt. Journal of Peasant Studies 28, 4: 57–94.Google Scholar
Rudra, Ashok. 1971. Urban Guerrillas in Calcutta. Economic and Political Weekly 6, 28: 1379–82.Google Scholar
Scott, James. 2009. The Art of not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sewall, Sarah, Nagl, John, Petraeus, David, and Amos, James. 2007. The U.S. Army Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Shah, Alpa. 2006. Markets of Protection: The ‘Terrorist’ Maoist Communist Centre and the State in Jharkhand, India. Critique of Anthropology 26, 3: 297–314.Google Scholar
Shah, Alpa and Pettigrew, Judith. 2009. Windows into a Revolution: Ethnographies of Maoism in South Asia. Dialectical Anthropology 33, 3–4: 225–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharma, B. D. 1987. The Report of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, 1986–7. New Delhi: Government of India. Indian Official Documents Collection, Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Sherman, Taylor C. 2007. The Integration of the Princely State of Hyderabad and the Making of the Postcolonial State in India, 1948–1956. Indian Economic and Social History Review 44, 4: 489–516.Google Scholar
Singh, Manmohan. 2006. PM's speech at the Chief Minister's Meet on Naxalism. At: http://pmindia.nic.in/speech/content.asp?id=311 (accessed 15 May 2008).Google Scholar
Social Welfare Department (Andhra Pradesh). 1984. Scheme for Rehabilitation of Podu Cultivators. Hyderabad: Government of Andhra Pradesh. Tribal Cultural Research and Training Institute Library, Hyderabad.Google Scholar
Sundar, Nandini. 2007. Subalterns and Sovereigns: An Anthropological History of Bastar, 1854–2006. 2d ed.Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sundarayya, Puchalapalli. 1972. Telengana People's Struggle and Its Lessons. Calcutta: Communist Party of India (Marxist).Google Scholar
Thirumali, Inukonda. 2003. Against Dora and Nizam: People's Movement in Telangana, 1939–1948. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers.Google Scholar
Thompson, Robert. 1966. Defeating Communist Insurgency: The Lessons of Malaya and Vietnam. London: F. A. Praeger.Google Scholar
Times of India. 1992. Naxals Stepping Up Activities in the State. 26 May: 12.Google Scholar
Weber, Max. 1949. The Methodology of the Social Sciences. Shils, Edward and Finch, Henry, eds. and trans. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Ajoy Bhavan Library (Communist Party headquarters), New Delhi.Google Scholar
India Office Records, British Library, London.Google Scholar
Indian Official Documents Collection, Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.Google Scholar
National Archives of India, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Official Publications Department, University Library, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Tribal Cultural Research and Training Institute Library, Hyderabad.Google Scholar
Balagopal, K. 2006. Maoist Movement in Andhra Pradesh. Economic and Political Weekly 41, 29: 3183–87.Google Scholar
Banerjee, Sumanta. 2002. Naxalbari: Between Past and Future. Economic and Political Weekly 37, 22: 2115–16.Google Scholar
Banerjee, Sumanta. 2008 [1984]. India's Simmering Revolution: The Naxalite Uprising. New Delhi: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Bhatia, Bela. 2005. The Naxalite Movement in Central Bihar. Economic and Political Weekly 40, 15: 1536–49.Google Scholar
Bhukya, Bhangya. 2004. Colonisation of Forest and Emergence of Gond Nationalism in Hyderabad State. Itihasa (Journal of Andhra Pradesh State Archives and Research Institute) 30, 1–2: 59–79.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha. 2008. Democracy and Economic Transformation in India. Economic and Political Weekly 43, 16: 53–62.Google Scholar
Chidambaram, P. 2009. Chidambaram Inaugurates DGPs/IGPs Conference. At: www.pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=52610 (accessed 15 June 2010).Google Scholar
Communist Party of India (CPI). 1950. Report on the Left Deviation inside the Communist Party of India: Draft Critique Submitted by the Members of the Central Committee from Andhra and Amended and Approved by the Central Committee in Its Recent Meeting. Ajoy Bhavan Library, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Communist Party of India (CPI) (Maoist). 2004. Strategy and Tactics of the India Revolution. At: http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/maoist/documents/papers/strategy.htm (accessed 15 July 2010).Google Scholar
Communist Party of India (CPI) (Maoist). 2005. Masses of Dandakaranya Rebel: In the Path of Liberation. Kolkata: Radical Publications.Google Scholar
Desai, Raj and Eckstein, Harry. 1990. Insurgency: The Transformation of Peasant Rebellion. World Politics 42, 4: 441–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duyker, Edward. 1987. Tribal Guerrillas: The Santals of West Bengal and the Naxalite Movement. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Election Commission of India. n.d. Election Results—Full Statistical Reports. At: http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/StatisticalReports/ElectionStatistics.asp (accessed 15 July 2010).Google Scholar
Fearon, James D. and Laitin, David D.. 2003. Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War. American Political Science Review 97, 1: 75–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Führer-Haimendorf, Cristoph von. 1945 Tribal Populations of Hyderabad: Yesterday and Today. Census of India, 1941, Volume 21: Hyderabad. New Delhi: Government of India. Official Publications Department, University Library, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Galula, David. 2006 [1964]. Counterinsurgency Warfare: Theory and Practice, London: Praeger Security International.Google Scholar
Gleditsch, Nils Petter, Wallensteen, Peter, Eriksson, Mikael, Sollenberg, Margareta, and Strand, Håvard. 2002. Armed Conflict 1946–2001: A New Dataset. Journal of Peace Research 39, 5: 615–37.Google Scholar
Gour, Raj Bahadur. 1973. Glorious Telengana Armed Struggle. New Delhi: Communist Party Publication.Google Scholar
Guha, Ramachandra. 2007. Adivasis, Naxalites and Indian Democracy. Economic and Political Weekly 42, 32: 3305–12.Google Scholar
Guha, Ramachandra and Gadgil, Mahdav. 1989. State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India. Past and Present 123: 141–77.Google Scholar
Hanstad, Tim and Nielsen, Robin. 2004. West Bengal's Bargadars and Landownership. Economic and Political Weekly 39, 8: 853–55.Google Scholar
Harrison, Selig. 1956. Caste and the Andhra Communists. American Political Science Review 50, 2: 378–404.Google Scholar
Hindustan Times. 2010. Rs. 3,300-cr to check Maoists (29 Nov). At: http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Rs-3-300-cr-to-check-Maoists/Article1-632090.aspx (accessed 18 June 2012).Google Scholar
Independent Citizens' Initiative. 2006. War in the Heart of India: An Enquiry into the Ground Situation in Dantewara District, Chhattisgarh. At: cpjc.files.wordpress.com/2007/07/ici-warintheheartofindia.pdf (accessed 15 July 2010).Google Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2006. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kilcullen, David J. 2010. Counterinsurgency. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kohli, Atul. 1987. The State and Poverty in India: The Politics of Reform. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kohli, Atul. 2009. Democracy and Development in India: From Socialism to Pro-Business. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kunnath, George J. 2009. Smouldering Dalit Fires in Bihar, India. Dialectical Anthropology 33: 309–25.Google Scholar
Mallick, Ross. 1994. Indian Communism: Opposition, Collaboration, and Institutionalization. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mazumdar, Charu. 1967. It Is Time to Build Up a Revolutionary Party. Liberation 1, 1 (Nov.): 62–79.Google Scholar
Mazumdar, Charu. 1970a. A Few Words about Guerrilla Actions. Liberation 3, 4 (Feb.): 17–23.Google Scholar
Mazumdar, Charu. 1970b. A Few Words to the Revolutionary Students and Youth. Liberation 5, 3 (Mar.): 13–14, 84–91.Google Scholar
McAdam, Douglas M. 1982. Political Process and the Development of the Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Miklian, Jason. 2011. Revolutionary Conflict in Federations: The India Case. Conflict, Security and Development 11, 1: 25–53.Google Scholar
Ministry of Home Affairs. 1971. Annual Report, 1970–71. New Delhi: Government of India. Indian Official Documents Collection, Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Ministry of Home Affairs. 2009. Annual Report, 2008–09. New Delhi: Government of India. Indian Official Documents Collection, Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Ministry of Home Affairs. 2010. Details of State-wise Annual Totals and National Annual Totals from 1980 to 2009. (Right to Information application filed by Purnima Ramanujan in March; copy available from Jonathan Kennedy.)Google Scholar
Ministry of Tribal Affairs. 2006. National Tribal Policy: A Policy for the Scheduled Tribes of India. New Delhi: Government of India. Indian Official Documents Collection, Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Mohanty, Manoranjan. 1977. Revolutionary Violence: A Study of the Maoist Movement in India. New Delhi: Sterling.Google Scholar
Mukherji, Nirmalangshu. 2010. Arms over People: What Have the Maoists Achieved in Dandakaranya? Economic and Political Weekly 45, 25: 16–20.Google Scholar
Oetken, Jennifer. 2009. Counterinsurgency against Naxalites in India. In Ganguly, Sumit and Fidler, David, eds., India and Counterinsurgency: Lessons Learned. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Overstreet, Gene D. and Windmiller, Marshall. 1959. Communism in India. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Padel, Felix. 2009. Sacrificing People: Invasions of a Tribal Landscape. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.Google Scholar
Pavier, Barry. 1981. The Telengana Movement 1944–51. New Delhi: Vikas.Google Scholar
Planning Commission of India. 2008. Development Challenges in Extremist Affected Areas: Report of an Expert Group. New Delhi: Government of India.Google Scholar
Pulla Reddy, Chandra. 1981. The Great Heroic Telengana Struggle. Hyderabad: A Road to Liberation Publication.Google Scholar
Raghavaiah, V. 1971. Tribal Revolts. Nellore: Andhra Rashtra Adimajati Sevak Sangh.Google Scholar
Ramakrishnan, Venkitesh. 2010. Flawed Operation. Frontline 27, 9: 4–9.Google Scholar
Rangaswamy, Amrita. 1974. Making a Village: An Experiment. Economic and Political Weekly 8, 46: 1524–27.Google Scholar
Rao, Chandra Rajeswara. 1971. The Historic Telengana Struggle: Some Useful Lessons from Its Rich Experience. New Delhi: Communist Party of India.Google Scholar
Rao, Devulapalli Venkateswara. 1982 [1949]. Refutation of Wrong Trends Advocating Withdrawal of Telangana Armed Struggle. Hyderabad: Proletarian Line Publications.Google Scholar
Ray, Rabindra. 2002. The Naxalites and Their Ideology. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Reddy, Arutla Ramachandra. 1984. Telengana Struggle: Memoirs. Rao, B. Narsing, trans. Delhi: People's Publishing House.Google Scholar
Roosa, John. 2001. Passive Revolution Meets Peasant Revolution: Indian Nationalism and the Telangana Revolt. Journal of Peasant Studies 28, 4: 57–94.Google Scholar
Rudra, Ashok. 1971. Urban Guerrillas in Calcutta. Economic and Political Weekly 6, 28: 1379–82.Google Scholar
Scott, James. 2009. The Art of not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Sewall, Sarah, Nagl, John, Petraeus, David, and Amos, James. 2007. The U.S. Army Marine Corps Counterinsurgency Field Manual. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Shah, Alpa. 2006. Markets of Protection: The ‘Terrorist’ Maoist Communist Centre and the State in Jharkhand, India. Critique of Anthropology 26, 3: 297–314.Google Scholar
Shah, Alpa and Pettigrew, Judith. 2009. Windows into a Revolution: Ethnographies of Maoism in South Asia. Dialectical Anthropology 33, 3–4: 225–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharma, B. D. 1987. The Report of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, 1986–7. New Delhi: Government of India. Indian Official Documents Collection, Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Sherman, Taylor C. 2007. The Integration of the Princely State of Hyderabad and the Making of the Postcolonial State in India, 1948–1956. Indian Economic and Social History Review 44, 4: 489–516.Google Scholar
Singh, Manmohan. 2006. PM's speech at the Chief Minister's Meet on Naxalism. At: http://pmindia.nic.in/speech/content.asp?id=311 (accessed 15 May 2008).Google Scholar
Social Welfare Department (Andhra Pradesh). 1984. Scheme for Rehabilitation of Podu Cultivators. Hyderabad: Government of Andhra Pradesh. Tribal Cultural Research and Training Institute Library, Hyderabad.Google Scholar
Sundar, Nandini. 2007. Subalterns and Sovereigns: An Anthropological History of Bastar, 1854–2006. 2d ed.Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sundarayya, Puchalapalli. 1972. Telengana People's Struggle and Its Lessons. Calcutta: Communist Party of India (Marxist).Google Scholar
Thirumali, Inukonda. 2003. Against Dora and Nizam: People's Movement in Telangana, 1939–1948. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers.Google Scholar
Thompson, Robert. 1966. Defeating Communist Insurgency: The Lessons of Malaya and Vietnam. London: F. A. Praeger.Google Scholar
Times of India. 1992. Naxals Stepping Up Activities in the State. 26 May: 12.Google Scholar
Weber, Max. 1949. The Methodology of the Social Sciences. Shils, Edward and Finch, Henry, eds. and trans. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar