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Whose Makassar? Claiming Space in a Segmented City

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 October 2011

Heather Sutherland
Heather Sutherland*
Affiliation:
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
*
[email protected]
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Extract

During the long nineteenth century, emerging bureaucratic states sought to align boundaries of space, political authority, and social identity. According to the normative ideal, ramified systems of delegated control should be consolidated into a single government, state power evenly applied throughout the entire area, and patchworks of local identities replaced with uniform citizenship. However, as Bayly has observed, states remained composite, negotiating with subordinates who retained their own spheres of influence. Integration was contested, uneven, and by no means linear. These tensions were evident in cities, with their traditions of trade and migration, and in colonial societies, characterized by the symbiosis between communal leaders and imported officials. However, even here informal controls were supplemented by state-sponsored social discipline as military power, managerial capacity, and populations expanded. Social categorizations were more rigidly enforced. Settlements and regulations became more closely packed, shrinking unclaimed space, both physical and social.

Type
Research Article
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 53 , Issue 4 , October 2011 , pp. 791 - 826
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 2011

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45 For an example of a confrontation at the port, see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16sWceuDIWk&feature=related.

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52 The on-line colonial maps series of the Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, show changes in land use. Consult it by typing “Makassar” in the first field of the following website: http://www.kit.nl/smartsite.shtml?ch=FAB&id=12227.

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56 See note 52 and Google Earth.

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58 H. Van Dissel notes that Governor Beerninck (1700–1703) buried his wife at het Loo. In Particuliere, 6; van de Wall, “De Nederlandsche Oudheden in Celebes,” Oudheidkundig jaarboek 9, 4 (1929): 109–19.

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60 Wall, “De Nederlandsche Oudheden.” The early-nineteenth-century Arendsburg survived until at least 1922.

61 Indonesian National Archives Jakarta, Makassar collection, 168; transfer memorandum by Governor P. Th. Chasse (1800–1808). For changing land use, see note 52.

62 H. Chabot, “Enekele Resultaten van een Onderzoek onder Verschillende Bevolkingsgroepen in de Stad Makassar (Zuid-Celebes, Indonesie), gehouden in de Jaren 1951–1952,” typecript, KITLV Library, Leiden.

63 During the 1920s town planning was fashionable. Niessen, Nicole, Municipal Government in Indonesia: Policy, Law and Practice of Decentralization in Urban Spatial Planning (Leiden: Centre for Non-Western Studies, 1999)Google Scholar; van Roosmalen, K. M., “Expanding Grounds: The Roots of Urban Planning in Indonesia,” in Colombijn, Freek, Barwegen, Martine, and Basundoro, Purnawan, eds., Kota Lama Kota Baru-Sejarah Kota-Kota Di Indonesi (Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak, 2005)Google Scholar.

64 Examples can be heard in the Makassar interviews in the Stichting Mondelinge Geschiedenis Indonesie sound archive, KITLV Leiden.

65 Colombijn, Under Construction, 285–86; Niessen, Municipal Government, 223–30.

66 Brune, “Strandboulevard.”

67 Archives of the Makassar city government (Arsip Kotamadya Makassar), Makassar branch of the Indonesian National Archives (ANRI), file 38.4; Colombijn, Under Construction; Klein, “Bestuursmemorie.”

68 This excludes the old company town's private tenure and customary rights in established settlements. In 1973, more than 75 percent of Makassar's land was government-owned. McTaggart, “Urban Policies,” 70–71.

69 Niessen, Municipal Government, 44–53; Colombijn, Under Construction, 31–34; Pradadimara, Dias, “Penduduk Kota, Warga Kota, Dan Sejarah Kota: Kisah Makassar,” in Colombijn, Freek, Barwegen, Martine, and Basundoro, Purnawan, eds., Kota Lama Kota Baru—Sejarah Kota-Kota Di Indonesia (Yogyakarta: Penerbit Ombak, 2005)Google Scholar.

70 It was named after Gowa's central fort (see below).

71 Forbes, Dean, The Pedlars of Ujung Pandang (Melbourne: Monash University Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Working Paper 17, 1979)Google Scholar; McTaggart, “Urban Policies”; Luhukay, “Dari Makassar,” 440–73; Ma'mur, Nuraeni, Walikota Makassar Legenda Di Timur: Persembahan 400 Tahun Kota Makassar (Makassar: Yapensi, 2007)Google Scholar.

72 Fatimah, Jeanny Maria, Murniati, , and Rahmat, , “Komunikasi Antara Etnik Tionghoa Dengan Etnik Bugis-Makassar Dalam Hubungan Dengan Integrasi Bangsa Pasca Orde Baru Di Makassar,” in Laporan Penelitian Hibah Bersaing Perguruan Tinggi (Universitas Hasanuddin, 2007)Google Scholar; Hendratmoko, Heru, ed., Amuk Makassar (Jakarta: Institut Studi Arus Indonesia, 1998)Google Scholar; Mackie, Jamie, “Changing Patterns of Chinese Big Business in Southeast Asia,” in McVey, Ruth, ed., Southeast Asian Capitalists (Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1992)Google Scholar; Sidel, Riots. Post-coup violence in 1965 seriously damaged Makassar's ethnic relations; see also Coppel, Charles A., Indonesian Chinese in Crisis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), 60–61Google Scholar.

73 Local administrations held 40 percent of shares; influential local entrepreneurs the remaining 60 percent: Jusuf Kalla owned 10 percent, while Tanri Abang, another Bugis at the heart of late New Order business, controlled the remaining 50 percent. Hendratmoko, ed., Amuk Makassar. Six related families with local and Jakarta links dominated Makassar's economy, including the Bosowa and Kalla groups. Titus, Determinants and Trends; Turner, Indonesia's Small Entrepreneurs.

74 The Java-based Lippo group, active in Makassar real estate since the 1980s, developed cheap rural land into suburbs guaranteeing a middle-class life style and security. The latter was very important for Chinese. Leisch noted, “With 2,800 hectares, the most exclusive of the new towns seems to be Lippo Karawici (West Java).” The Lippo Super Mall there was targeted by rioters in 1998 and subsequently sold; it was no longer for the “upper and upper-middle classes, but for the lower classes, mainly indigenous Indonesians.” Leisch, Harald, “Perception and Use of Space by Ethnic Chinese in Jakarta,” in Aygen Erdentung and Freek Colombijn, eds., Urban Ethnic Encounters: The Spatial Consequences (London: Routledge, 2002), 105–6Google Scholar.

75 Hendratmoko, ed., Amuk Makassar, 89–95.

76 At: www.lippokarawaci.co.id/webForm/housing_homes.aspx (accessed 24 Feb. 2010; my translation from Indonesian).

77 This was despite an annual growth rate of 10 percent. Anwar, Labour Mobility; Titus, Determinants and Trends; Turner, Indonesia's Small Entrepreneurs.

78 Ilham, Marwas, and Haniah, Biduk.

79 All are my translations from the Indonesian.

80 Like many of Makassar's elite, Ilham studied at Hasanuddin University. He also has a master's degree in management from the Makassar Muslim University.

81 Ma'mur, Walikota Makassar; Moh. Yahya Mustafa, ed., Ilham Arief Sirajuddin. Perjalanan Masih Panjang (Makassar: Pustaka Refleksi, 2004). See also the municipal government website http://bahasa.makassarkota.go.id/ (hereafter Pemkot). This site (see “Keliling Kota”) gives images of Losari and modern Makassar's development (as do the Makassar threads on http://www.skyscrapercity.com.) as well as maps: http://bahasa.makassarkota.go.id/index.php/component/content/article/86.

82 Ma'mur, Walikota Makassar.

83 Saduran, “Panjang Losari Jadi Lima Kilometer,” Makassar Terkini (online) (2009): 12 May; Pemkot 3 June 2008, 26 Dec. 2008, passim. See also Panyinkul!, an on-line magazine: http://www.panyingkul.com/view.php?id=498&jenis=citizenreporter.

84 Danny Pomanto, architect and town planner, commented, “Centre Point Indonesia will not just be the center of Indonesia, but will the middle, or center, of the whole world.” One structure, “The Equilibrium,” Should—if built—Symbolize Makassar's role as “a forerunner of Indonesian nationalism, Reformasi, and a new Indonesian civilization.” http://inart.wordpress.com/2009/07/07/anjungan-pantai-losari-dan-cpi-apakah-obsesi-pejabat-semata/ (accessed 14 Feb. 2010). My translation from the Indonesian.

85 “Toelichting op het Schets Detail Plan…,” Archives of the Makassar city government (Arsip Kotamadya Makassar), Makassar branch of the Indonesian National Archives (ANRI) document, 38.4. 5. My translation from the Dutch.

86 For an advocate's view, see: http://www..com/watch?v=qadyoutubec0rboPFQ; for images: http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=783562&page=2.

87 Pemkot, passim, particularly 27 July 2007, 11 June 2008, and 28 July 2008. On anti-Chinese accusations, see 22 Apr. 2008, 23 June 2008; Yasen, Karebosi. The site was to be exploited under a thirty-year lease.

88 “Karebosi masa depan=Produksi kapitalis?” https://deen10february.wordpress.com/2007/12/06/sedikit-curhat-ttg-karebosi/. Also see: http://asruldinazis.wordpress.com/2007/10/17/karebosi-produk-kapitalisme-masa-depan/. My translation from the Indonesian.

89 Ilham, Marwas, and Haniah, Biduk, 104–5.

90 Ibid., 175–76. All my translations from the Indonesian.

91 Yasen, Karebosi, 29; Pemkot 15 Dec. 2007.

92 Pemkot 25 Dec. 2007, and 10 June 2008. See also the poetry collection: Palisuri, Udhin, Karebosi: 400 Puisi Untuk Makassar (Makassar: Yayasan Karebosi, 2008)Google Scholar.

93 Yasen, Karebosi, 36, 40–44. For a news report, see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3nJ8E_TBhTM&feature=related.

94 Yasen, Karebosi, 81. My translation from the Indonesian. For an example of spirit possession at Karebosi, see: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yK4GZUEiQmU&feature=related.

95 Yasen, Karebosi, 79–80.

96 Ibid., 81, see also 84. My translation from the Indonesian.

97 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4rtWEyfgHk.

98 http://www.mail-archive.com/[email protected]/msg12823.html; http://iriantosyahkasim.multiply.com/journal/item/340 (accessed 2/24/ 2010). See also Pemkot, and the Makassar newspaper Fajar on line, at www.fajar.co.id/koran, passim. For opinions of Ilham, see Idris Patarai, Ilham Arief Sirajuddin Di Mata Publik Makassar (Makassar: Hasanuddin University Press, 2007).

99 Google Earth historical images.

100 Appadurai, Modernity at Large, 206, 207, 215, 216.

101 Hayden, Compare Dolores, The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History (Cambridge Mass.: MIT, 1995), 8–9Google Scholar.

102 Verslag Van De Commissie Tot Bestudeering Van Staatsrechterlijke Hervormingen (Batavia: Landsdukkerij, 1942), vol. 2, 95Google Scholar. My translation from the Dutch.

103 Antweiler, Christoph, Urbane Rationalitat: Eine Stadethnologische Studie Zu Ujung Pandang (Makassar) Indonesien, Kolner Ethnologische Mitteilungen Band 12 (Koln: Dietrich Reimer, 2000)Google Scholar; Colombijn, Under Construction. In 1914, a Dutch official wrote that kampung ethnic names might suggest, “the various population elements are still grouped according to origins. However that is not the case!” H. T. Damsté, “Memorie Van Overgave Assistent Resident Van Makassar,” 1914, KITLV Leiden manuscripts, no. H 1084 (43).

104 Bayly, Birth of the Modern World, 478.

105 Suprapti, , ed., Perkampungan Di Perkotaan Sebagai Wujud Proses Adaptasi Sosial: Daerah Sulawesi Selatan (Jakarta: Departamen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1985), 18–19Google Scholar.

106 McTaggart, “Urban Policies,” 79.

107 Ibid.

108 Furnivall, Netherlands India, 446, 451, 467, 459.

109 Bahrum, Shaifuddin, Berubah: Metamorfosis Masyarakat Tionghoa Makassar Dalam 10 Tahun Reformasi (Makassar: Yayasan Baruga Indonesia, 2008)Google Scholar; Coppel, Indonesian Chinese.

110 http://makassarkota.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=36&Itemid=49 (accessed 7 Mar. 2010). This summary of Makassar's history reflects the city's “re-branding.” Morrell, Elizabeth, “Strengthening the Local in National Reform: A Cultural Approach to Political Change,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 32, 3 (2001): 437–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Folk etymologies of place names are central to local history; see Paeni, Muchlis et al. , Sejarah Sosial Daerah Sulawesi Selatan Dan Mobilitas Kota Makasar, 1900–1950 (Ujung Pandang: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1984/1985)Google Scholar.

111 http://makassarkota.go.id/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=36&Itemid=49.

112 “Tempo Doeloe,” or “the good old days,” is a deliberately nostalgic term.

113 Fatimah, Murniati, and Rahmat, “Komunikasi”; Hendratmoko, ed., Amuk Makassar; Ilham, Marwas, and Haniah, Biduk, 121–22; Bahrum, Berubah, 23–26; Bahrum, Shaifuddin, Cina Peranakan Makassar: Pembauran Melalui Perkawinan Antarbudaya (Makassar: Yayasan Baruga Nusantara, 2003)Google Scholar, 78, n. 21. My translation from the Indonesian.

a Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen Map Colonial Map Collection, 09084, Amsterdam.

b Author's composite, drawn from data in McTaggart, “Urban Policies” and Titus, Determinants and Trends.