Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T00:06:28.719Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Transnational Romance, Terror, and Heroism: Russia in American Popular Fiction, 1860–1917

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 June 2008

Choi Chatterjee
Choi Chatterjee
Affiliation:
California State University, Los Angeles
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Scholars of Russian-American relations in the late nineteenth century have long been concerned with the personalities and writings of university-based experts, journalists, diplomats, and political activists. We are well acquainted with the observations of various American commentators on the backward state of Russian state, society, economy, and politics. While the activities of prominent men such as George Kennan have effortlessly dominated the historical agenda, the negative discourses that they produced about Russia have subsumed other important American representations of the country. Since the period of early modern history, European travelers had seen Russia as a barbarous land of slave-like people, responsive only to the persuasions of the whip and the knout wielded by an autocratic tsar. Subsequently, Larry Wolff has shown that Voltaire and other Enlightenment philosophers created images of a despotic and backward Eastern Europe in order to validate the idea of a progressive, enlightened, and civilized Western Europe.

Type
Research Article
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 50 , Issue 3 , July 2008 , pp. 753 - 777
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Comparative Studies in Society and History 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Foulke, W. D., Slav or Saxon: A Study of the Growth and Tendencies of Russian Civilization (New York: Putnam's, 1887), 61–62Google Scholar.

2 Lasch, Christopher, American Liberals and the Russian Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962)Google Scholar; Malia, Martin, Under Western Eyes: From the Bronze Horseman to the Lenin Mausoleum (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Scanlan, James, Revolutionary Lives: Anna Strunsky and William English Walling (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Travis, Frederick F., George Kennan and the American-Russian Relationship, 1865–1924 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1990)Google Scholar; Williams, Robert ., Russian Art and American Money, 1900–1940 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Williams, William ppleman, American Russian Relations, 1781–1947 (New York: Rinehart, 1952)Google Scholar. For Russian perspectives, see Golubev, A. V. et al. , eds., Rossiia i zapad: Formirovanie vneshnepoliticheskikh stereotipov v soznanii rossiiskogo obshchestva pervoi poloviny XX veka (Moscow: RAN, 1998)Google Scholar; Fokin, V. I., Mezhdunarodnyi kul'turnyi obmen i SSSR v 20–30 gody (St. Petersburg: Izd-vo St. Peterburgskogo universiteta, 1999)Google Scholar; Nikoliukin, Aleksandr Nikolaevich, Literaturnye sviazii Rossii i SShA: Turgenev, Tolstoi, Dostoevsky i Amerika (Moscow: Nauka, 1981)Google Scholar; Tuganova, O. E. et al. , eds., Vzaimodeistvie kul'tur SSSR i SSHA, xviii–xxvv (Moscow: Nauka, 1987)Google Scholar.

3 Wolff, Larry, Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Marshall, T. Poe, “A People Born to Slavery”: Russia in Early Modern European Ethnography, 1476–1748 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000)Google Scholar.

4 See Astolphe Custine's classic text, Empire of the Tsar: Journey through Eternal Russia (New York: Doubleday 1989); Gross, Irena Grudzinska, “The Tangled Tradition: Custine, Herberstein, Karamzin, and the Critique of Russia,” Slavic Review 50, 4 (1991): 990–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Gaddis, John Lewis, Russia, the Soviet Union and the United States: An Interpretive History (New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., 1990)Google Scholar.

6 Engerman, David Charles, Modernization from the Other Shore: American Intellectuals and the Romance of Russian Development (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

7 Some excellent exceptions to this general trend are Babey, Anna ., Americans in Russia 1776–1917: A Study of the American Travelers in Russia from the American Revolution to the Russian Revolution (New York: Comet Press, 1938)Google Scholar; McReynolds, Louise, Russia at Play: Leisure Activities at the End of the Tsarist Era (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003), 154–92Google Scholar; Saul, Norman, Concord and Conflict: The United States and Russia, 1867–1914 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

8 “Empire of the Discontented,” North American Review (Feb. 1879): 175.

9 Dulles, Foster Rhea. Americans Abroad: Two Centuries of European Travel (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1964)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Levenstein, Harvey, Seductive Journey: American Tourists in France from Jefferson to the Jazz Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schriber, Mary uzanne, Writing Home: American Women Abroad, 1830–1920 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1997)Google Scholar; Stowe, William W., Going Abroad: European Travel in Nineteenth-Century American Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994)Google Scholar.

10 There is a huge literature on the history of Russian intellectual thought. Here are a few important references: Berlin, Isaiah, Russian Thinkers (New York: Viking Press, 1978)Google Scholar; Haimson, Leopold, The Russian Marxists and the Origins of Bolshevism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1955)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kelly, Aileen, Towards another Shore: Russian Thinkers between Necessity and Chance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Malia, Martin, Aleksander Herzen and the Birth of Russian Socialism, 1812–1855 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Venturi, Franco, Roots of Revolution: A History of Populist and Socialist Movements in Nineteenth-Century Russia (New York: Knopf, 1960)Google Scholar; Walicki, Andrzej, A History of Russian Thought from the Enlightenment to Marxism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979)Google Scholar.

11 Grenby, M. O., “The Anti-Jacobin Novel: British Fiction, British Conservatism and the Revolution in France,” History 83, 271 (1998): 445–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Cawelti, John G., Adventure, Mystery, and Romance: Formula Stories as Art and Popular Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976)Google Scholar; Denning, Michael, Dime Novels and Working Class Culture in America (London: Verso, 1987)Google Scholar.

13 Allen, James Smith, “History and the Novel: Mentalité in Modern Popular Fiction,” History and Theory 22, 3 (1983): 233–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Boym, Svetlana, Common Places: Mythologies of Everyday Life in Russia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994)Google Scholar.

14 Pratt, Mary Louise, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978).

15 For the complicated nexus between Said and Foucault, see Clifford, James, “On Orientalism,” in The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), 225–76Google Scholar; Kennedy, Valerie, Edward Said: A Critical Introduction (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 2000)Google Scholar.

16 Dirks, Nicholas, “Edward Said and Anthropology,” Journal of Palestinian Studies 33, 3 (2004): 38–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rotter, Andrew, “Saidism without Said: Orientalism and U.S. Diplomatic History,” American Historical Review 105, 4 (2000): 1205–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Chakrabarty, Dipesh, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Cooper, Fredrick and Stoler, Ann Laura, eds., Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stoler, Ann aura, “Tense and Tender Ties: The Politics of Comparison in North American and (Post) Colonial Studies,” Journal of American History 88, 3 (2001): 829–65CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

18 Cohn, Bernard, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996)Google Scholar; Jacobson, Matthew rye, Barbarian Virtues (New York: Hill and Wang 2000)Google Scholar; Mitchell, Timothy, Colonising Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988)Google Scholar; Sinha, Mrinalini, Specters of Mother India (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Yoshihara, Mari, Embracing the East: White Women and American Orientalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

19 Kaplan, Amy, The Anarchy of Empire in the Making of U.S. Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002), 100Google Scholar.

20 On American fiction and imperialism see, Rowe, John Carlos, Literary Culture and U.S. Imperialism: From the Revolution to World War II (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Streeby, Shelley, American Sensations: Class, Empire, and the Production of Popular Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Brickhouse, Anna, Transamerican Literary Relations and the Nineteenth-Century Public Sphere (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; See also American Literary History 8, 3 (Fall 2006), an issue devoted entirely to the theme of American literature and transnationalism.

21 Rydell, Robert W., All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876–1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984)Google Scholar.

22 Figes, Orlando, Natsha's Dance: A Cultural History of Russia (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2002)Google Scholar.

23 Kammen, Michael, A Season of Youth: The American Revolution and the Historical Imagination (New York: Knopf, 1978), 214–15Google Scholar.

24 Amy Kaplan, Anarchy of Empire, 117.

25 Marks, Steven G., How Russia Shaped the Modern World: From Art to Anti-Semitism, Ballet to Bolshevism (Princeton: Princeton University Press 2003), 22Google Scholar; Buckler, Julie A., “Melodramatizing Russia: Nineteenth-Century Views from the West,” in McReynolds, Louise and Neuberger, Joan, eds., Imitations of Life: Two Centuries of Melodrama in Russia (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 55–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar; For a comprehensive bibliography on Western fiction see Cross, Anthony G., The Russian Theme in English Literature from the Sixteenth Century to 1980: An Introductory Survey and a Bibliography (Oxford: W. A. Meeuws, 1985)Google Scholar.

26 Cobb, Sylvanus, Ivan the Serf, or, The Russian and Circassian: A Tale of Russia, Turkey and Circassia / by Austin C. Burdick (New York: S. French, 1850–1859)Google Scholar; Gayarre, Charles, Dr. Bluff in Russia, or The Emperor Nicholas and the American Doctor: A Comedy in Two Acts (New Orleans: Bronze Pen Print, 1865)Google Scholar.

27 The Nation (15 Dec. 1892): 461.

28 Gunter, A. C., My Official Wife (New York: The Home Publishing Co., 1891)Google Scholar. Denise Youngblood recently informed me the novel was made into a Hollywood film twice, in 1914 and 1926. Savage also had a considerable following in England and was frequently reviewed in the English periodical The Saturday Review. Another popular novel by H. Grattan Donnelly was turned into a play: Darkest Russia (New York: Street and Smith, 1896).

29 See Bernard G. Richards' introduction to Abraham Cahan's Yekl and the Imported Bridegroom and other Stories of the New York Ghetto (New York: Dover, 1970).

30 Zirin, Mary F., “Meeting the Challenge: Russian Women Reporters and the Balkan Crises of the late 1870s,” in Norton, Barbara and Gheith, Jehanne, eds., An Improper Profession: Women, Gender, and Journalism in Late Imperial Russia (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), 140–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 Neilson, Keith, “Tsars and Commissars: W. Somerset Maugham, Ashenden and Images of Russia in British Adventure Fiction, 1890–1930,” Canadian Journal of History 27, 3 (1992): 475–500CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gagneur, Louise Mignerot, A Nihilist Princess (New York: Brentano's, 1886)Google Scholar; Henty, George lfred, Condemned as a Nihilist: A Story of Escape from Siberia (London: Blackie and Son Ltd., 1893)Google Scholar; Lavigne, Ernest, A Female Nihilist (New York, 1881)Google Scholar; Queux, William Le, A Secret Service: Being Strange Tales of a Nihilist (London: W. H. Allen and Co., 1896)Google Scholar. See also Verne, Jules, Michael Strogoff: Courier of the Tsar (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1927 [1875])Google Scholar; see also the review in Scribner's Magazine (Apr. 1877): 873.

32 Hart, James D., The Popular Book: A History of America's Literary Taste (New York: Oxford University Press, 1950), 199Google Scholar; Scheick, William J., The Ethos of Romance at the Turn of the Century (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994), 1–2Google Scholar.

33 Who was Who in America, vol. 1 (Chicago: A. N. Marquis Co., 1943), 1082.

34 Poultney Bigelow, The Borderland of Czar and Kaiser: Notes from Both Sides of the Russian Frontier (New York: Harper and Bros., 1895); Champney, Elizabeth W., Three Vassar Girls in Russia and Turkey (Boston: Estes and Lauriat, 1889)Google Scholar; Kennan, George, Tent Life in Siberia: A New Account of an Old Undertaking (New York: Arno Press, 1970)Google Scholar; Ker, David, Hudson to the Neva (Boston: D. Lothrop and Co., 1883)Google Scholar; Latimer, Elizabeth ormeley, Russia and Turkey in the Nineteenth Century (Chicago: A. C. McClurg 1894)Google Scholar; Michell, T., Handbook for Travellers in Russia, Poland and Finland (London: John Murray, 1893)Google Scholar; Optic, Oliver, Northern Lands; or Young America in Russia and Prussia (Boston: Lee and Shepherd, 1890)Google Scholar; Proctor, Edna Dean, A Russian Journey (Boston: J. R. Osgood and Co., 1872)Google Scholar; Stevens, Thomas, Through Russia on a Mustang (New York: Cassell Publishing Co., 1891)Google Scholar.

35 MacGahan, Janaurius A., Campaigning on the Oxus, and the Fall of Khiva (New York: Arno Press, 1970)Google Scholar; Walker, Dale L., Januarius Macgahan: The Life and Campaigns of an American War Correspondent (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1988)Google Scholar; Schuyler, Ernest, Turkistan: Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkistan, Bukhara, Khokhand, and Kuldja in Two Volumes (New York: Armstrong and Co., 1877)Google Scholar.

36 Brewster, Dorothy, East West Passages. A Study in Literary Relationships (London: Allen and Unwin, 1954)Google Scholar; Gettmann, Royal ., Turgenev in England and America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1941)Google Scholar.

37 “The Spell of Russian Writers,” Atlantic Monthly (Aug. 1887): 201.

38 Waddington, Patrick, Turgenev and England (New York: New York University Press, 1981)Google Scholar.

39 Addams, Jane, Twenty Years at Hull House with Autobiographical Notes (New York: Macmillan Co., 1923)Google Scholar; Dementev, I. P., “Leo Tolstoy and Social Critics in the United States at the Turn of the Century,” in Saul, Norman and McKinzie, Richard, eds., Russian-American Dialogue on Cultural Relations, 1776–1914 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997), 170–91Google Scholar; Fodor, Alexander, “The Acceptance of Leo Tolstoy in United States,” Research Studies 45, 2 (1977): 73–81Google Scholar; Literaturnoe nasledstvo: Tolstoi i zarubezhnyi mir, vol. 1 (Moscow, 1965).

40 Whittaker, Robert, “Tolstoy's American Translator: Letter's to Isabel Hapgood, 1888–1903, Triquarterly 102 (Spring/Summer, 1998): 7–65Google Scholar; Aleksandrov, V.A., “Izabella Khepgud i deiateli russkoi kul'tury,” Literaturnoe obozrenie 9, 10 (1993): 70–83Google Scholar.

41 Mott, Frank Luther, Golden Multitudes: The Story of Bestsellers in the U.S. (New York: Macmillan Co., 1947), 182–83Google Scholar.

42 Marina Ledkovsky, “A Linguistic Bridge to Orthodoxy: In Memoriam Isabel Florence Hapgood,” lecture delivered at the Twelfth Annual Russian Orthodox Musicians Conference, 7–11 Oct. 1988, Washington, D.C.; Eugene Schuyler, Selected Essays (New York: Scribner's 1901), 207, first pub. in Scribner's Magazine (May 1889); and “Elopement in Moscow,” in Scribner's Magazine (Dec. 1871): 231–34.

43 Papers of I. F. Hapgood, box, 5, New York Public Library, Division of Rare Books and Manuscripts; a clipping of an article from the New York Recorder (7 Aug. 1892), alleges she received money from the tsarist government.

44 Hapgood, Isabel, Russian Rambles (New York: Arno Press, 1970)Google Scholar. See also her, “Theater Going in St. Petersburg,” Living Age (9 Jan. 1897): 124–29; “Russian Breakfast Dishes,” The Independent (13 Sept. 1900).

45 Norman Saul, Concord and Conflict, 374–77.

46 Davis, Richard Harding, A Year from a Correspondent's Notebook (New York: Arno Press, 1970)Google Scholar; Logan, John A, In Joyful Russia (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1897)Google Scholar; Prall, William, ed., The Court of Alexander III: Letters of Mrs. Lothrop (Philadelphia: John C. Winston Co., 1910)Google Scholar.

47 Michel Cantacuzène's memoir, The Cantacuzène-Speransky Saga (Westerly, 1991), 109–14; Cantacuzène, Princess, Revolutionary Days: Recollections of Romanoffs and Bolsheviki 1914–1917 (New York: Arno Press, 1970)Google Scholar; Nostitz, Countess, Countess from Iowa (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1936)Google Scholar. As Maureen Montgomery has shown, wealthy American families sought noble European spouses to fortify their own social ascendancy. ‘Gilded Prostitution’: Status, Money, and Transatlantic Marriages, 1870–1914 (New York: Routledge, 1989).

48 Beckert, Sven, Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 1850–1896 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Levine, Lawrence, Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988)Google Scholar.

49 Homberger, Eric, Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 5Google Scholar; Schneirov, Matthew, The Dream of a New Social Order: Popular Magazines in America 1893–1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 186Google Scholar.

50 There were very few African-American travelers to Russia during this period, although after 1917 many, including Langston Hughes and Paul Robeson, traveled to the Soviet Union. See A Black Woman's Odyssey through Russia and Jamaica: The Narrative of Nancy Prince. Introduction by Ronald G. Walters (New York: M. Weiner, 1990); Baldwin, Kate ., Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain: Reading Encounters between Black and Red, 1922–1963 (Durham: Duke University Press 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

51 In the Dwellings of Silence: A Romance of Russia (New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1893).

52 Gordon, Julien, Diplomat's Diary (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1890)Google Scholar; Gilbreath, Olive, Miss Amerikanka (New York: Harper and Bros., 1918)Google Scholar.

53 In the Dwellings of Silence, 4.

54 Many of the American novelists seemed to have borrowed the descriptions of the social life of the Russian nobility from an article written by a famous French critic, Vicomte Eugène Melchior de Vogüé, “Social Life in Russia,” Harper's New Monthly Magazine (May 1889), 833–55. See also his, The Tsar and His People, or Social Life in Russia (New York: Harper and Bros., 1891), 1–100. For flattering descriptions of Russian aristocrats, see Gautier, Théophile, Russia, Tyson, Florence Macintyre, trans. (Philadelphia: J. C. Winston Co., 1905)Google Scholar; de Custine, Marquis, Empire of the Czar: A Journey through Eternal Russia (New York: Doubleday, 1989)Google Scholar.

55 For an interesting analysis of women in Russian fiction see, Heldt, Barbara, Terrible Perfection: Women and Russian Literature (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987)Google Scholar; Also see de Vogüè's admiring comments about Russian women, in The Tsar and His People, 30–31.

56 Mitchell, T.Handbook for Travellers in Russia, Poland and Finland (London: John Murray, 1893), 78Google Scholar.

57 In the Dwellings of Silence, 18. See also the descriptions of Wanda in Louise Gagneur's Nihilist Princess, reviewed in Atlantic Monthly (Oct. 1881): 568–69. The novel was based loosely on the life of Sofia Perovskaia, one of the first Russian women to be executed for a political crime there. For an American version of this story, see Berry, Mary Lee, Philip Harum: The Nihilist Student (New York: J. H. Brown Publishing Co., 1892)Google Scholar; Danovitch: A Russian Romance. Living Age (Jan. 1892): 65–128.

58 Harriet Preston Waters, “The Spell of Russian Writers,” Atlantic Monthly (Aug. 1887): 200.

59 O'Meara, Kathleen, Narka the Nihilist (New York: Harper and Bros., 1887)Google Scholar, and serialized in Harper's New Monthly Magazine in 1887. Barr, Amelia, Michael and Theodora: A Russian Story (Boston: Bradley and Woodruff, 1892)Google Scholar; Leys, John K.. The Black Terror: A Romance of Russia (Boston: L. C. Page and Co., 1900)Google Scholar; Holmes, Mary J., Lucy Harding: A Romance of Russia (New York: American News Co., 1905)Google Scholar.

60 Becker, Seymour, Nobility and Privilege in Late Imperial Russia (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1985)Google Scholar; Hamburg, Gary, Politics of the Russian Nobility, 1881–1905 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1984)Google Scholar; Manning, Roberta, Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982)Google Scholar. Unfortunately Chekhov's reputation was established in the United States after World War I and thus American writers were unaffected by his unforgettable portraits of the declining Russian gentry. Nikoliukin, A. N., Chekhov and America, in Saul, Norman and Mckinzie, Richard, eds., Russian-American Dialogue on Cultural Relations, 1776–1914 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997), 212–21Google Scholar.

61 No Place of Grace: Anti-Modernism and the Transformation of American Culture 1880–1920 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981).

62 Narka the Nihilist (1887); In the Dwellings of Silence (1893); Michael and Theodore (1893).

63 Gagneur, Nihilist Princess. See also Thomas Bailey Aldrich's, “Paulina Pavlovna,” Harper's New Monthly Magazine (Dec. 1887): 50–56.

64 Bederman, Gail, Manliness and Civilization. A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hoganson, Kristin L., Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American War and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988)Google Scholar.

65 My Official Wife, 32.

66 Ibid., 54

67 Holmes, Lucy Harding; Wood, Ruth Kedzie, Honeymooning in Russia (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1911)Google Scholar.

68 A reviewer in The Nation observed that while Kennedy had used Kennan's volumes on Siberia, the book contained many inaccuracies on matters of diplomatic protocol and the geography of Russia and Siberia. The Nation (8 Mar. 1894): 58.

69 Ibid., 199–200.

70 Barbara MacGahan, a Russian émigré writer, also sends her characters, the idealistic Boris and Vera, to America when all their socialistic ventures fail in Russia. Xenia Repina: A Story of Russia Today (New York: George Routledge and Sons, 1890).

71 The Anarchist: A Story of Today (Chicago: F. T. Neely, 1894), 4.

72 Joll, James, The Anarchists (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980)Google Scholar.

73 Hong, Nathaniel, “Constructing the Anarchist Beast in American Periodical Literature, 1880–1903,” Cultural Studies in Mass Communication 9, 1 (1992): 110–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Phillips, Wm. M.. Nightmares of Anarchy: Language and Cultural Change, 1870–1914 (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Shpayer-Makov, Haia, “Anarchism in British Public Opinion 1880–1914,” Victorian Studies 31, 4 (1988): 488–516Google Scholar. Also see her “A Traitor to His Class: The Anarchist in British Fiction,” Journal of European Studies 26, 3 (1996): 299–325.

74 Charles Johnston, “Nihilism and Anarchy,” North American Review (Sept. 1900): 302–14.

75 Avrich, Paul, Russian Anarchists (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1967)Google Scholar; Kelly, Aileen, Mikhail Bakunin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987)Google Scholar; P. A. Kropotkin's Memoirs of a Revolutionist (Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Co., 1899) was also serialized in The Atlantic Monthly from 1898–1899. For their influence abroad, see Steven Marks' How Russia Shaped the Modern World, 7–56.

76 Engel, Barbara Alpern, Mothers and Daughters: Women of the Intelligentsia in Nineteenth-Century Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983)Google Scholar; Pozefsky, Peter C., The Nihilist Imagination: Dimitrii Pisarev and the Cultural Origins of Russian Radicalism, 1860–1868 (New York: Peter Lang, 2003)Google Scholar.

77 Tolstoy's famous novel, Resurrection (1899) deals with the inhumanity of the Siberian prison system.

78 One of the foundational texts in this tradition is Vera Figner's abridged works, Memoirs of a Revolutionist (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1991).

79 See Sally Boniece's article on the female terrorist and myth of martyrdom in Russian culture, “Spiridonova Case, 1906: Terror, Myth, and Martyrdom,” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 4, 3 (2003): 571–606. Walker, Barbara, “On Reading Soviet Memoirs: A History of the ‘Contemporaries’ Genre as an Institution of Russian Intelligentsia Culture from the 1790s to the 1970s,” Russian Review 59, 3 (2000): 327–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80 My Past and Thoughts: The Memoirs of Alexander Herzen (New York: Knopf, 1968); Pirumova, N., Russia and the West: Nineteenth Century (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1990)Google Scholar; Lev Tikhomirov's, La Russie politique et sociale (Paris: E. Giraud and cie, 1886). Tikhomirov, founder of People's Will, helped shape the image of the populists in Europe.

81 Chisholm, Helen trans., Sixteen Years in Siberia: Some Experiences of a Russian Revolutionist (Westport, Conn.: Hyperion Press, 1977 [1903]), 94–95Google Scholar.

82 Trotsky, Leon, My Life: Attempt at an Autobiography (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970)Google Scholar; Robert Service, Lenin: A Biography (London: Macmillan, 2000); Tucker, Robert, Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928–1941 (New York: Norton, 1990)Google Scholar.

83 William L. Kingsley, “Nihilism in Russia as It Appears in the Novels of Ivan Turgenieff,” New Englander and Yale Review 37 (Sept. 1878): 553–73; Barzun, Jacques, “Russian Politics in Russian Classics,” Commentary 5, 91 (1991): 41–47Google Scholar.

84 Richards, Christine, “Occasional Criticism: Henry James on Ivan Turgenev,” Slavonic and East European Review 78, 3 (2000): 463–86Google Scholar.

85 Initially serialized in Century Magazine in 1888.

86 Papers of George Kennan, box 4, p. 28, New York Public Library, Division of Rare Books and Manuscripts Division. See also an article by J. H. Rosny who reiterates a familiar theme of the cultured and poverty stricken Russian revolutionary: “Nihilists in Paris,” Harper's New Monthly Magazine (Aug. 1891): 429–42; and see Willard Brown, “Socialists in a German University,” Atlantic Monthly (Dec. 1881): 801–13.

87 Blackwell, Alice Stone, ed., The Little Grandmother of the Russian Revolution: Reminiscences and Letters of Catherine Breshkovsky (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1917)Google Scholar; Christopher Lasch, The American Liberals, 8–9. Smith, Shannon, “From Relief to Revolution: American Women and the Russian-American Relationship, 1890–1917,” Diplomatic History 19, 4 (1995): 601–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Lillian Wald and Jane Addams were also close friends of the noted Russian revolutionary Ekaterina Breshkovskaia.

88 Sergius Stepniak, “What Americans Can Do for Russians,” North American Review (Nov. 1891): 600.

89 Moser, Thomas C., “An English Context for Conrad's Russian Characters: Sergey Stepniak and the Diary of Olive Garnett,” Journal of Modern Literature 11, 1 (1984): 3–42Google Scholar; Senese, Donald, S. M. Stepniak-Kravchinskii: The London Years (Newtonville, Mass.: Oriental Research Partners, 1987)Google Scholar.

90 Good, Jane E., “America and the Russian Revolutionary Movement, 1888–1905,” Russian Review 41, 3 (1982): 273–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For Stepniak's correspondence with Edward Bellamy, Poultney Bigelow, and William Dean Howells, see Russian State Archives of Literature and Art, Moscow, S. M. Kravchinskii fond, 1158, op. 1, ed. khr. 196, l. 1; khr. 202, l. 2, 3; and khr. 495, l. 1, 4.

91 Taratuta, Evgeniia, Podpol'naia Rossiia: Sud'ba knigi S. M. Stepniaka-Kravchinskogo (Moscow: Kniga, 1967)Google Scholar.

92 Russian State Archives of Literature and Art, S. M. Kravchinskii fond, 1158, op. 1, ed. khr. 445, l. 2.

93 Stepniak, S., Nihilism as It Is (London: T. F. Unwin, 1894), 65–66Google Scholar.

94 Korolenko, Vladimir, In Two Moods (London: Ward and Downey, 1892)Google Scholar.

95 Stepniak (S. M. Kravchinsky), The Career of a Nihilist: A Novel (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1889); “Sergius Stepniak,” Harper's Weekly (17 Jan. 1891): 41–42; Voronov, V. and Zemskov, V., “Angliiskaia pressa ob ‘Andree Kozhukhove,’” Novyi mir 6 (1956): 273–74Google Scholar; Taratuta, Evgeniia, S. M. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky, revoliutsioner i pisatel' (Moscow: Khudozh-lit, 1973), 341–56, 392–410Google Scholar; Freeborn, Richard, The Russian Revolutionary Novel: From Turgenev to Pasternak (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 30–38Google Scholar; See also Thomas B. Eyges' translation of Kravchinsky's play, The New Convert: A Drama in Four Acts (Boston: Stratford Co., 1917).

96 Stepniak had a lasting influence on Cahan. Marovitz, Sanford E., Abraham Cahan (New York: Twayne, 1996), 121Google Scholar.

97 Cahan, Abraham, The White Terror and the Red (New York: Arno Press, 1975)Google Scholar; Noble, Lydia Pimenov, Before the Dawn: A Story of Russian Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Houghton, Mifflin and Co., 1901)Google Scholar.

98 See Richard Pipes' fascinating account of Sergei Degaev, a Russian revolutionary turned police informer, who, after his immigration to the United States in1886, received his doctorate in mathematics from Johns Hopkins and became a respectable professor. The Degaev Affair: Terror and Treason in Tsarist Russia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003). I should add that during the decade of 1890s there was a considerable increase in immigration from Russia to the United States, especially from sections of the Russian Jewish population. Rischin, Moses, The Promised City, New York Jews, 1870–1914 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962)Google Scholar; Slezkine, Yuri, The Jewish Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

99 Marriott Crittenden, 257; Sylvanus Cobb, Ivan the Serf, 91.

100 de Grazia, Victoria, Irresistible Empire: America's Advance through Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Engerman, David, “American Knowledge and Global Power,” Diplomatic History 31, 4 (2007): 599–622CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Geinow-Hecht, Jessica, “Shame on US? Academics, Cultural Transfer and the Cold War: A Critical Review,” Diplomatic History 24, 3 (2000): 465–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

101 Alexeyeva, Liudmila, The Thaw Generation: Coming of Age in the Post-Stalin Era (Boston: Little, Brown, 1990)Google Scholar.