Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T07:50:45.529Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Small Warriors? Children and Youth in Colonial Insurgencies and Counterinsurgency, ca. 1945–1960

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 September 2020

Stacey Hynd
Stacey Hynd*
Affiliation:
History, University of Exeter
*
[email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Child soldiers are often viewed as a contemporary, “new war” phenomenon, but international concern about their use first emerged in response to anti-colonial liberation struggles. Youth were important actors in anti-colonial insurgencies, but their involvement has been neglected in existing historiographies of decolonization and counterinsurgency due to the absence and marginalization of youth voices in colonial archives. This article analyses the causes of youth insurgency and colonial counterinsurgency responses to their involvement in conflict between ca. 1945 and 1960, particularly comparing Kenya and Cyprus, but also drawing on evidence from Malaya, Indochina/Vietnam, and Algeria. It employs a generational lens to explore the experiences of “youth insurgents” primarily between the ages of twelve and twenty. Youth insurgents were most common where the legitimate grievances of youth were mobilized by anti-colonial groups who could recruit children through colonial organizations as well as family and social networks. While some teenagers fought due to coercion or necessity, others were politically motivated and willing to risk their lives for independence. Youth soldiers served in multiple capacities in insurgencies, from protestors to couriers to armed fighters, in roles that were shaped by multiple logics: the need for troop fortification and sustained manpower; the tactical exploitation of youth liminality, and the symbolic mobilization of childhood and discourses of childhood innocence. Counterinsurgency responses to youthful insurgents commonly combined violence and development, highlighting tensions within late colonial governance: juveniles were beaten, detained, and flogged, but also constructed as “delinquents” rather than “terrorists” to facilitate their subsequent “rehabilitation.”

Keywords

youthchildhoodgenerationchild soldierinsurgencycounterinsurgencycolonialdecolonizationKenyaCyprus
Type
Insurgent Youth
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 62 , Issue 4 , October 2020 , pp. 684 - 713
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Government of Cyprus, Corruption of Youth in Support of Terrorism (Nicosia: Government Printer, 1957), 18.

2 Grivas-Dighenis, George and Foley, Charles, eds., The Memoirs of General Grivas (London: Longman, 1964), 36Google Scholar; Government of Cyprus, “Corruption of Youth,” 11.

3 See, e.g., French, David, The British Way in Counterinsurgency, 1945–67 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Drohan, Brian, Brutality in an Age of Human Rights: Activism and Counterinsurgency at the End of the British Empire (New York: Cornell University Press, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4 Khalili, Laleh, “Gendered Practices of Counterinsurgency,” Review of International Studies 37, 4 (2010): 1–21Google Scholar; Sjoberg, Laura, Gender, War and Conflict (London: Polity, 2014)Google Scholar.

5 See, e.g., Waller, Richard, “Rebellious Youth in Colonial Africa,” Journal of African History 47, 1 (2006): 77–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sager, Paul, “Youth and Nationalism in Vichy Indochina,” Journal of Vietnamese Studies 3, 3 (2008): 291–301CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Abbink, Jon and van Kessel, Ineke, eds., Vandals or Vanguards: Youth, Politics and Conflict in Africa (Leiden: Brill, 2005)Google Scholar.

6 Kilcullen, David, Counterinsurgency (London: Hurst, 2010), 40Google Scholar.

7 Evidence suggests that children and youth also contributed to anti-colonial insurgencies in Portuguese and Dutch empires, but further research is required to substantiate the extent of their involvement.

8 See Ariès, Philippe, Centuries of Childhood, Phillips, Adam, trans. (London: Pimlico, 1996[1960])Google Scholar; James, Allison, Jenks, Chris, and Prout, Alan, Theorizing Childhood (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2015[1998])Google Scholar; Pomfret, David M., Youth and Empire: Trans-Colonial Childhoods in British and French Asia (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2015)Google Scholar.

9 Fass, Paula S., “Childhood and Globalization,” Journal of Social History 36, 4 (2003): 963–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pomfret, Youth and Empire.

10 Twum-Danso, Afua, “The Political Child,” in McIntyre, Angela, ed., Invisible Stakeholders: Children and War in Africa (Cape Town: Institute for Security Studies, 2005), 7–14Google Scholar; Honwana, Alcinda, Child Soldiers in Africa (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 40–45Google Scholar.

11 See Durham, Deborah, “Youth and the Social Imagination in Africa: Introduction to Parts 1 and 2,” Anthropological Quarterly 73, 3 (2000): 113–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Abbink and van Kessel, Vandals or Vanguards.

12 Aljunied, Syed Muhd, Radicals: Resistance and Protest in Colonial Malaya (DeKalb: Northern Illinois Press, 2015), 61Google Scholar.

13 See Helgren, Jennifer and Vasconcellos, Colleen, eds., Girlhood: A Global History (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2012)Google Scholar.

14 Griffin, Geoffrey W., The Autobiography of Geoffrey W. Griffin, Kenya's Champion Beggar, as Narrated to Yusuf M. King'ala (Nairobi: Falcon Crest, 1952), 45Google Scholar.

15 Waller, “Rebellious Youth,” 85.

16 The National Archives, Kew (henceforth TNA), FCO 141/14597, “Traffic of Chinese Students between Malaya and Communist China.”

17 Pignot, Manon, ed., L'Enfant Soldat: XIXe–XXIe Siècle (Paris: Armand Collin, 2012), 10CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 United Nations, “Paris Principles on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict,” 2007, https://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/ParisPrinciples310107English.pdf (last accessed 11 May 2020).

19 Rosen, David M., Child Soldiers in Western Imagination: From Patriots to Victims (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Singer, P. W., Children at War (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 38–40Google Scholar.

21 Pignot, L'Enfant Soldat.

22 See International Committee of the Red Cross Archives, Geneva (CICR), B AG 051-097, “Protection de la femme et de l'enfant dans le droit international humanitaire 1971.”

23 CICR, B AG 059 297-09, “Protection des enfants en periode de conflit armé-consultation de l'UNICEF,” 2 Nov. 1971.

24 ICRC, “Official Records of the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts, Geneva,” vol. 15, CDDH/III/SR.45, 64–75.

25 See “Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts,” 8 June 1977, I, art. 77 (2) and II, art. 4(3)(c).

26 Høiskar, Astri Halsan, “Underage and Under Fire: An Enquiry into the Use of Child Soldiers 1994–8,” Childhood 6, 3 (2001): 340–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27 See Urdal, Henrik, “A Clash of Generations? Youth Bulges and Political Violence,” International Studies Quarterly 50, 3 (2006): 607–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28 Waller, “Rebellious Youth,” 79.

29 Pomfret, Youth and Empire, 7.

30 Pursley, Sara, “The Stage of Adolescence: Anticolonial Time, Youth Insurgency, and the Marriage Crisis in Hashimite Iraq,” History of the Present 3, 2 (2012): 160–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Heraclidou, Antigone, Imperial Control in Cyprus: Education and Political Manipulation in the British Empire (London: I. B. Tauris, 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Krais, Jakob, “The Sportive Origin of Revolution: Youth Movements and Generational Conflicts in Late Colonial Algeria,” Middle East—Topics & Argument 9 (2017): 132–41Google Scholar.

31 Shakry, Omnia El, “Youth as Peril and Promise: The Emergence of Adolescent Psychology in Postwar Egypt,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 43 (2011): 592–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

32 See Ponzio, Alessio, Shaping the New Man: Youth Training Regimes in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2017)Google Scholar.

33 See Drif, Zohra, Memoires d'une combattante de l'ALN: Zone Autonome d'Alger (Algiers: Chihab, 2011)Google Scholar; Aljunied, Radicals.

34 See Rosen, David M., Child Soldiers in Western Imagination: From Patriots to Victims (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2015), 76–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mandambwe, John, with Kolk, Mario, ed., Can You Tell Me Why I Went to War? A Story of a Young King's African Rifle Reverend Father John E. A. Mandambwe (Zomba: Kachere Books, 2007)Google Scholar.

35 Grivas-Dighenis and Foley, Memoirs, 28.

36 Raffin, Anne, Youth Mobilization in Vichy Indochina and Its Legacies, 1940 to 1970 (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2008), 195Google Scholar.

37 Ibid., 196; Aljunied, Radicals.

38 Wessells, Michael, Child Soldiers: From Violence to Protection (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2009), 43Google Scholar.

39 Harper, Tim, The End of Empire and the Making of Malaya (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 187Google Scholar; TNA, CO 1022/132, Detention Orders, “Detention and Deportation during the Emergency in the Federation of Malaya,” 10.

40 Hynd, Stacey, “Pickpockets, Pilot Boys, and Prostitutes: The Construction of Juvenile Delinquency in the Gold Coast, c. 1929–57,” Journal of West African History 4, 2 (2018): 48–74Google Scholar.

41 Pursley, “Stage of Adolescence,” 160; El Shakry, “Youth as Peril and Promise,” 592–93.

42 Kenyan National Archives (KNA), BZ/16/1, “Mau Mau Youth Offenders,” East African Standard, “Rehabilitation of Mau Mau Detainees,” 3 June 1954; Leakey, L.S.B., Mau Mau and the Kikuyu (London: Routledge, 1952), 78–80Google Scholar.

43 Stephens, Sharon, “Children and the Politics of Culture in Late Capitalism,” in Stephens, Sharon, ed., Children and the Politics of Culture (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 3–48Google Scholar.

44 TNA, CO 859/660, file “Save the Children—Kenya,” Brigadier Boyce, “Children of Kenya,” Corona, 5 May 1955.

45 TNA, FCO 141/3195, PEON, draft memo from Acting Governor, 3 July 1953.

46 Government of Cyprus, “Corruption of Youth,” 25.

47 TNA, FCO 141/4661, “Juveniles—Emergency Offences,” Sgt. W. T. Barker to Chief Constable Nicosia, 13 Nov. 1957.

48 TNA, CO 859/575, “Juvenile Welfare—Kenya,” News Chronicle, n.d. There was often overlap between “criminal” and “political” acts in insurgencies, and the relationship between juvenile criminality, delinquency, and nationalist agitation deserves further research.

49 Burman, Erica, “Innocents Abroad: Western Fantasies of Childhood and the Iconography of Emergencies,” Disasters 18, 3 (1994): 238–53CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed, 244.

50 Comaroff, Jean and Comaroff, John, “Réflexions sur la jeunesse: du passé à la postcolonie,” Politique Africaine 80 (2000): 90–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

51 Ocobock, Paul, An Uncertain Age: The Politics of Manhood in Kenya (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2017), 7Google Scholar.

52 Summers, Marc, Stuck: Rwandan Youth and the Struggle for Adulthood (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011)Google Scholar.

53 Lonsdale, John, “Authority, Gender and Violence: The War within Mau Mau's Fight for Land and Freedom,” in Odhiambo, E. S. Atieno and Lonsdale, John, eds., Mau Mau and Nationhood: Arms, Authority and Narration (Oxford: James Currey, 2003), 46–75Google Scholar.

54 John Lonsdale, “The Moral Economy of Mau Mau: Wealth, Poverty and Civic Virtue in Kikuyu Political Thought,” in Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, “Unhappy Valley: The State, Mau Mau and the Path to Violence,” pt. V of Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa (London: James Currey, 1992), 326.

55 See Wessells, Child Soldiers, 36.

56 Heraclidou, Imperial Control, 3777; Government of Cyprus, “Corruption of Youth,” 11.

57 French, Fighting EOKA, 66.

58 Grivas, Grivas on Guerrilla Warfare, 14.

59 CICR, B AG 225 108-003, “Mau Mau Detainees and Convicts,” 6.

60 David M. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged: Britain's Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004), 42–45; KNA, AB/1/09, “Work Camps, Manyani 1954–6,” R.F.F. Owles, “Report on Juvenile Mau Mau Detainees (u16) at Manyani Special Camp.”

61 Government of Cyprus, “Corruption of Youth,” 3, 11, 18.

62 Kotek, Joël, “Youth Organizations as a Battlefield in the Cold War,” Intelligence and National Security 18, 2 (2003): 168–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

63 Gleason, Mona, “Avoiding the Agency Trap: Caveats for Historians of Children, Youth, and Education,” History of Education 45, 4 (2016): 446–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

64 Ferdi, See Saïd, Un Enfant dans la guerre (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1981)Google Scholar; Khoo, Agnes, Life as the River Flows: Women in the Malayan Anti-Colonial Struggle, Crisp, Richard, ed. (SIRD: Selangor, 2004), 67, 186–88Google Scholar.

65 Rosen, David M., Armies of the Young: Child Soldiers in War and Terrorism (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2005), 92–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

66 Thomas, Lynn M., “Historicizing Agency,” Gender & History 28, 2 (2016): 324–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brett, Rachel and Specht, Irma, Young Soldiers: Why They Choose to Fight (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2004)Google Scholar.

67 Honwana, Child Soldiers in Africa, 50–51; Drumbl, Mark, Reimagining Child Soldiers in International Law and Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 98–101CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

68 TNA, FCO 141/4602, “Death Sentences,” L. W. Whymark to Director of Operations, 21 Feb. 1957.

69 McMaster, Neil, Burning the Veil: The Algerian War and the Emancipation of Algerian Women (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2012)Google Scholar.

70 Amrane-Minne, Danièle Djamila, Des Femmes dans la Guerre la Guerre d'Algérie: Entretiens (Paris: Karthala, 1994)Google Scholar.

71 Anderson, David M., “The Battle of Dandora Swamp: Reconstructing the Mau Mau Land and Freedom Army, October 1954,” in Odhiambo, E. S. Atieno and Lonsdale, John, eds., Mau Mau and Nationhood: Arms, Authority and Narration (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003), 172Google Scholar.

72 TNA, FCO 141/4602, L. W. Whymark to Director of Operations, 21 Feb. 1957.

73 Guillemot, Francois, “Death and Suffering at First Hand: Youth Shock Brigades during the Vietnam War,” Journal of Vietnamese Studies 4, 3 (2009): 17–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 Raffin, Youth Mobilization, 213. See also Dror, Olga, Making Two Vietnams: War and Youth Identities, 1965–75 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

75 Pham Thang, The Youth Intelligence Squad, and Phung Quan, A Fierce Childhood, cited in Huynh, Kim, D'Costa, Bina, and Lee-Koo, Katrina, Children and Global Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 155CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

76 See Amrane-Minne, Des Femmes.

77 Bancel, Nicolas, Denis, Daniel, and Fates, Youssef, eds., De l'Indochine a l'Algeria: La Jeunesse en Movements de Deux Cotes du Miroir Colonial, 1940–62 (Paris: Editions la Decouverte, 2003), 75Google Scholar.

78 Parsons, Timothy, Race, Resistance, and the Boy Scout Movement in British Colonial Africa (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2004), 6Google Scholar.

79 TNA, FCO 141/3795, “Material for Council of Europe Human Rights Commission”, Director of Education to Governor, 13 Sept. 1956; Government of Cyprus, “Corruption of Youth,” 17.

80 TNA, FCO 141/6331, “Detainees and Detention Camps—Juvenile Detainees, Minutes from the Council of Ministers,” 3 Oct. 1955.

81 Government of Cyprus, “Corruption of Youth,” 3.

82 Rosen, Armies of the Young, 19–56.

83 See Drohan, Brutality in an Age of Human Rights, 101.

84 See Pomfret, Youth in Empire; Karen Vallgårda, Imperial Childhoods and Christian Mission: Education and Emotions in South India and Denmark (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).

85 TNA, FCO 141/3714, “Counter-Propaganda in America,” 21 Dec. 1955.

86 Government of Cyprus, “Corruption of Youth,” 3.

87 Grivas-Dighenis and Foley, Memoirs, 43.

88 TNA, FCO 141/4225, Grivas’ Diaries, Pamphlet “Terrorism in Cyprus.”

89 Grivas-Dighenis and Foley, Memoirs, 89.

90 Goscha, Christopher, “A Total War of Decolonization? Social Mobilization and State Building in Communist Vietnam, 1949–54,” War & Society 31, 2 (2012): 136–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

91 Huynh, D'Costa, and Lee-Koo, Children and Global Conflict, 142–53.

92 Ibid., 153.

93 Many were directly or indirectly targeted and wounded during security operations, however, revealing the clash between policy and practice.

94 KNA, AH/14/25, Minute Secretariat meeting, 15 July 1954; Secretary War Council to Minister for Defence, Nairobi, 19 June 1954.

95 KNA, AH/14/25, “Control of Juveniles: Memorandum by the Emergency Joint Staff,” Dec. 1954; BZ 16/1/11, “Juvenile Mau Mau Cases,” Colin Owen to PC Rift Valley, 21 Apr. 1953.

96 Raphaëlle Branche, La Torture et L'Armée pendant la guerre d'Algérie 1954–62 (Paris: Gallimard 2001).

97 Colonial security and military forces themselves included eighteen-year-old national servicemen in British forces and among white Kenyan recruits.

98 KNA, AB/17/66, “Ujana Park 1955–58,” Sunday Post, “Langata Boys Town for Kikuyu Children,” Nov. 1955.

99 Branch, Defeating Mau Mau.

100 Ferdi, Un Enfant.

101 TNA, FCO 141/3195, PEON.

102 French, Fighting EOKA, 66.

103 TNA, CO 141/4661, Special Justice Limassol to Chief Justice Nicosia, 27 Feb. 1957.

104 Government of Cyprus, Annual Reports, 1955–59 (Nicosia: Government Printer, 1956–1960).

105 TNA, CO 859/573, “Juvenile Offenders—East Africa.”

106 TNA, FO 371/117670/1081/1460, “Punishment by Whipping,” Field Marshal Harding to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 18 Dec. 1955.

107 Ibid.

108 Paul Ocobock, “Spare the Rod, Spoil the Colony: Corporal Punishment, Colonial Violence, and Generational Authority in Kenya, 1897–1952,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 45, 1 (2012): 29–56.

109 TNA, FCO 141/3795, Collation of Material, 1956.

110 Cyprus, Annual Report for the Year ending 1956, Justice.

111 TNA, FCO 141/3666, “Corporal Punishment of Boys 1955,” L. Durrell to L. Glass, 11 Jan. 1956.

112 Ibid., PEAKE to POMEF, 14 Dec. 1955.

113 Cyprus, Annual Report for the Year ending 1956, Justice.

114 TNA, CO 822/1239, “Detention of Juvenile Delinquents in Kenya, 1957–9, Parliamentary Questions,” 10 May 1957.

115 Ibid.; Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 5, 291. There was dispute over convicted girls’ ages.

116 TNA, FCO 141/46, “Death Sentences,” Assistant Chief Constable CID Nicosia, 20 Feb. 1957.

117 TNA, FCO 141/3159, “Capital Punishment,” Governor to Secretary of State, 2 Mar. 1957; Minute by Deputy Governor, 21 Feb. 1957.

118 Government of Cyprus, “Corruption of Youth,” 23.

119 TNA, FO 371/130131/1071/202, “Execution of Mr Pallikarides,” Communiqué, 22 Mar. 1957; CICR, B AG 224 049-004, “Intervention du CIRC pour le cas de trois détenus chypriotes condamnés à mort,” Apr. 1957.

120 See Elkins, Caroline, Britain's Gulag: The Brutal End of Empire in Kenya (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005)Google Scholar; French, British Way in Counterinsurgency.

121 TNA, CO 926/672 CIC(57) 21, “Final CIC Intelligence Review,” 24 June 1957, cited in French, Fighting EOKA, 66.

122 CICR, B AG 225 049-005, “Situation de l'enfance à Chypre,” letter D. de Traz to Genève, 28 Aug. 1957.

123 CICR, B AG 202 049-001, “Generalities: Rapports du délégué du CICR de Traz,” Dr Moutzithropoulos to de Traz, 11 Nov. 1958.

124 TNA, FCO 141/3788, “Prisons and Detention Camps,” Superintendent Central Prison to Chief of Staff, 18 July 1956; Superintendent Central Prison to Administrative Secretary, 26 Feb. 1957.

125 See KNA, AH/6/4–9, files for daily averages; Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 5, 356.

126 TNA, CO 859/573, “Juvenile Offenders—East Africa.”

127 KNA, AB/1/09, “Work Camps, Manyani 1954–6,” R.F.F. Owles, “Report on Juvenile Mau Mau Detainees (u16) at Manyani Special Camp.”

128 TNA, FCO 141/3661, “Juvenile Detainees,” Dr Killen, Report on Manyani, 7 Apr. 1955.

129 TNA, CO 822/1236, Report by Eileen Fletcher on the Detention and Imprisonment of Children in Kenya; TNA, CO 822/1240, “Conditions of Detention and Imprisonment of Juveniles in Kenya during the Emergency.”

130 KNA, AB/9/37, “Complaints,” petition from Kamiti Juveniles to Legislative Council, 21 Nov. 1955.

131 French, British Way in Counterinsurgency, 175.

132 Moritz Feichtinger, “Villagization: A People's History of Strategic Resettlement and Violent Transformation in Kenya and Algeria, 1955–62” (PhD diss., University of Bern, 2015), 245.

133 Baughan, Emily, “Rehabilitating an Empire: Humanitarian Collusion with the Colonial State during the Kenyan Emergency, ca. 1954–60,” Journal of British Studies 59, 1 (2020): 57–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

134 Elkins, Britain's Gulag, 110. Kenya's rehabilitation program drew inspiration from Malaya's emergency welfare measures.

135 Heraclidou, Imperial Control; Harper, End of Empire, 193.

136 TNA, CO 926/190, Harding to Lennox-Boyd, 31 Dec. 1955.

137 Heraclidou, Imperial Control, 5054.

138 TNA, FCO 141/3795, “School Closures,” 26 Oct. 1956.

139 Parsons, Race, Resistance, 164; CICR, B AG 108-003, “Mau Mau in Kenya,” 41; L.S.B. Leakey, Defeating Mau Mau (London: Methuen & Co., 1954), 16, 31.

140 Feichtinger, “Villagization,” 245.

141 Ibid.

142 TNA, CO 1022/32, “Education in New Villages.”

143 TNA, FCO 141/7482, “Chinese Students”; TNA, FO 371/123901/1081/1374, “Student Reinforcement for EOKA.”

144 Hynd, “Pickpockets,” 60.

145 TNA, CO 1022/132, “Detention and Deportation during the Emergency,” 10.

146 Ibid.

147 TNA, FCO 141/4661, Director of Welfare Services to Attorney-General, 26 Oct. 1957.

148 TNA, FCO 141/3788, Fox and Fairn report, 22 Mar. 1956.

149 KNA, AB/1/09, “Work Camps, Manyani 1954–6,” R.F.F. Owles, “Report on Juvenile Mau Mau Detainees.”

150 Ibid., R.F.F. Owles, “Manyani Special Camp,” 10 May 1955.

151 Ibid.; Griffin, Autobiography, 47.

152 KNA, AB/1/118, “Youth Camps Approved School 1956–7, Annual Report for 1956”; CICR, B AG 225 108-001 “Detention des members du movement Mau Mau, visite à Wamoumou.”

153 Griffin, Autobiography, 47.

154 KNA, AB/1/118, “Youth Camps Approved School, 1956–7,” “Wamumu, Be Prepared!”

155 Ocobock, Uncertain Age, 198.

156 Burman, “Innocents Abroad,” 244.

157 Ocobock, Uncertain Age, 194.

158 Griffin, Autobiography, 50.

159 KNA, AB/1/09, “Report on Juvenile Mau Mau Detainees.”

160 KNA, VQ/21/3, “Approved Schools, 1956–9,” “The Rehabilitation of Youth.”

161 O'Neil, Siobhan and van Broeckhoven, Kato, eds., Cradled by Conflict: Child Involvement with Armed Groups in Contemporary Conflict” (New York: United Nations University, 2018)Google Scholar.

162 See Wessells, Child Soldiers; Singer, Children at War.

163 See Louyot, Alain, Les Enfants Soldats (Paris: Editions Perrin, 1989)Google Scholar.