Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T10:11:23.343Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Onset of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Premorbid Conditions and Prodromal Phase

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Giuseppe Maina ,
Umberto Albert ,
Filippo Bogetto  and
Luigi Ravizza
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article focuses on the clinical onset of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), specifically addressing the of onset, gradual and acute onset, and whether there are some types of premorbid conditions or a prodromal phase that predispose individuals to the onset of OCD. Clinical and epidemiological studies have come to different conclusions regarding age at onset as well as regarding differences between the sexes. Data gleaned from research to date have demonstrated a relationship between OCD and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), although OCPD does not appear to be the more prevalent personality disorder among patients with OCD. Preliminary research has suggested that Axis I disorders may predispose individuals to OCD onset; however, the significance of this relationship remains to be clarified. Evidence of the association between OCD and subthreshold obsessive-compulsive syndrome suggests that these disorders lie on a continuum of severity, with some cases developing OCD while others do not.

Type
Feature Articles
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 5 , Issue 12: The White Paper Issue 2000 , December 2000 , pp. 31 - 43
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.Black, DW. Epidemiology and genetics of OCD: a review and discussion of future directions and research. CNS Spectrums. 1996;1:10–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
2.American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
3.Anthony, JC, Folstein, M, Romanowski, AJ, et al.Comparison of the lay diagnostic interview and a standardized psychiatric diagnosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985;42:667–675.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
4.Helzer, JE, Robins, LN, McEvoy, LT. A comparison of clinical and diagnostic interview schedule diagnoses: physicians re-examination of lay interview cases in general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985;42:657–666.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
5.Nelson, E, Rice, J. Stability of diagnosis of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the Epidemiologic Catchment Area study. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:826–831.Google ScholarPubMed
6.Degonda, M, Wyss, M, Angst, J. The Zurich Study. XVIII. Obsessive-compulsive disorders and syndromes in the general population. Eur Arch Psychiatr Clin Neurosci. 1993;243(1):16–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7.Karno, M, Golding, JM, Sorenson, SB, et al.Epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in five US communities. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988;45:1094–1099.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8.Karno, M, Golding, JM. Obsessive-compulsive disorder. In: Robins, LN, Regier, DA, eds. Psychiatric Disorders in America: The Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. New York, NY: The Free Press; 1991:204–219.Google Scholar
9.Bland, RC, Newman, SC, Orn, H. Lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders in Edmonton. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1988;338:24–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
10.Bland, RC, Newman, SC, Orn, H. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in Edmonton. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1988;338:33–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11.Kolada, JL, Bland, RC, Newman, SC. Epidemiology of psychiatric disorders in Edmonton: obsessive-compulsive disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 1994;376:24–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12.Weissman, MM, Bland, RC, Canino, GJ, et al.The cross national epidemiology of obsessive compulsive disorder. The Cross National Collaborative Group. J Clin Psychiatry. 1994;55(suppl):5–10.Google ScholarPubMed
13.Canino, GJ, Bird, HR, Shrout, PE, et al.The prevalence of specific psychiatric disorders in Puerto Rico. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987;44:727–735.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Wittchen, HU, Essau, CA, VonZerssen, D, et al.Lifetime and six-month prevalence of mental disorder in the Munich Follow-up Study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1992;241:247–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15.Hwu, HG, Yek, EK, Chang, LY. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in Taiwan defined by the Chinese Diagnostic Interview Schedule. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1989;79:136–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Well, JE, Bushnell, JA, Hornblow, AR, et al.Christchurch Psychiatric Epidemiology Study. I: methodology and lifetime prevalence for specific psychiatric disorders. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 1989;23:315–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17.Robins, LN, Helzer, JE, Croughan, J, et al.National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule: its history, characteristics, and validity. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1981;38:381–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
18.Goodwin, DH, Guze, SB, Robins, E. Follow-up studies in obsessional neurosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1969;20:182–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Rasmussen, SA, Tsuang, MT. Clinical characteristics and family history in DSM-III obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1986;143:317–322.Google ScholarPubMed
20.Rasmussen, SA, Eisen, JL. The epidemiology and clinical features of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1992;15:743–758.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
21.Rapoport, JL. The walking nightmare: an overview of obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1990;51(suppl):25–28.Google Scholar
22.Berman, L. The obsessive compulsive neurosis in children. J New Ment Dis. 1942;95:26–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23.Judd, L. Obsessive-compulsive neurosis in children. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1965;12:136–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24.Adams, PL. Obsessive Children: a Sociopsychiatric Study. New York, NY; Brunner Mazel, 1973.Google Scholar
25.Holligsworth, CE, Tanguay, PE, Grossman, L, et al.Longterm outcome of obsessive-compulsive disorder in childhood. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. 1980;19:134–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26.Bolton, D, Collins, S, Steinberg, D. The treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder in adolescence. A report of fifteen cases. Br J Psychiatry. 1983;142:456–464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27.Apter, A, Tyano, S. Obsessive-compulsive disorders in adolescence. J Adolescence. 1988;11:183–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28.Flament, MF, Whitaker, A, Rapoport, JL, et al.Obsessive-compulsive disorder in adolescence: an epidemiological study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1988;27:764–771.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29.Swedo, SE, Rapoport, JL. Phenomenology and differential diagnosis. In: Rapoport, JL, ed. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1989.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Noshirvani, HF, Kasvikis, Y, Marks, IM, et al.Genderdivergent aetiological factors in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 1991;158:260–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31.Despert, JL. Differential diagnosis between obsessive-compulsive neurosis and schizophrenia in children. In: Hoch, P, Zubin, J, eds. Psychopathology of Childhood. New York, NY: Grune & Stratton; 1955.Google Scholar
32.Lensi, P, Cassano, GB, Correddu, G, et al.Obsessive-compulsive disorder. Familial-developmental history, symptomatology, comorbidity and course with special reference to gender-related differences. Br J Psychiatry. 1996;169:101–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33.Bogetto, F, Albert, U, Maina, G, et al.Comorbidity between obsessive-compulsive disorder and other axis I disorders: gender and course-related differences. Giorn Ital Psicopat. 1997;3:179–188.Google Scholar
34.Angst, J. The epidemiology of obsessive compulsive disorder. In: Hollander, E, Zohar, J, Marazziti, D, Olivier, B, eds. Current Insights in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons; 1994.Google Scholar
35.Rachman, SJ, Hodgson, RJ. Obsessions and Compulsions. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1980.Google Scholar
36.Ravizza, L, Maina, G, Bogetto, F. Episodic and chronic obsessive-compulsive disorder. Depress Anxiety. 1998;6:154–158.3.0.CO;2-C>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37.Perry, JC. Problems and considerations in the valid assessment of personality disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1992;149:1645–1653.Google ScholarPubMed
38.Shapiro, D. Neurotic Styles. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1965.Google Scholar
39.Salzman, L. Obsessional Personality. New York, NY: Sciences House; 1968.Google Scholar
40.Spacal, S. La nevrosi ossessiva. In: Semi, AA, ed. Trattato di Psicanalisi. Milano, Italy: Raffaello Cortina; 1989.Google Scholar
41.Slade, PD. Psychometric studies of obsessional illness and obsessional personality. In: Beech, HR, ed. Obsessional States. London, England: Methuen; 1974.Google Scholar
42.Pollak, J. Obsessive-compulsive personality: a review. Psychol Bull. 1979;2:225–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43.Joffe, RT, Swinson, RP, Regan, JJ. Personality features of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1988;145:1127–1129.Google ScholarPubMed
44.Steketee, G. Personality traits and diagnoses in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Paper presented at: Annual Meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy; 1988; New York, NY.Google Scholar
45.Black, DW, Yates, WR. DSM-III personality disorders in obsessive-compulsive study volunteers: a controlled study. J Pers Disorders. 1989;3:58–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
46.Baer, L, Jenike, MA, Black, DW, et al.Standardized assessment of personality disorders in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch J Psychiatry. 1990;47:826–830.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47.Mavissakalian, M, Hamann, MS, Jones, B. Correlates of DSM-III personality disorder in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 1990;31:481–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
48.Baer, L, Jenike, MA, Black, DW, et al.Effect of Axis II diagnoses on treatment outcome with clomipramine in 55 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;49:862–866.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49.Horesh, N, Kimchi, N, Kindler, S, et al.Personality traits in obsessive-compulsive disorder patients. Presented at: First International Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Congress; 1993; Capri, Italy.Google Scholar
50.Maina, G, Bellino, S, Bogetto, F, et al.Personality disorders in obsessive-compulsive patients: a study report. Eur J Psychiatry. 1993;7:155–163.Google Scholar
51.AuBuchon, PG, Malatesta, VJ. Obsessive compulsive patients with comorbid personality disorder: associated problems and response to a comprehensive behavior therapy. J Clin Psychiatry. 1994;55:448–453.Google ScholarPubMed
52.Baer, L. Factor analysis of symptom subtypes of obsessive compulsive disorder and their relation to personality and tic disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 1994;55(suppl):18–23.Google ScholarPubMed
53.Black, DW, Noyes, R Jr, Pfohl, B, et al.Personality disorder in obsessive-compulsive volunteers, well comparison subjects, and their first-degree relatives. Am J Psychiatry. 1993;150:1226–1232.Google ScholarPubMed
54.Zimmermann, M, Coryell, W. DSM-III personality disorder diagnoses in a nonpatient sample: demographic correlates and comorbidity. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46:682–689.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
55.Pfohl, B, Black, DW, Noyes, R, et al.A test of the tridimensional personality theory: association with diagnosis and platelet imipramine binding in obsessive-compulsive disaorder. Biol Psychiatry. 1990;20:41–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
56.Nestadt, G, Romanoski, AJ, Brown, CH, et al.DSM-III compulsive personality disorder: an epidemiological survey. Psychol Med. 1991;21(2):461–471.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57.Boyd, JH, Burke, JD, Gruenberg, E, et al.Exclusion criteria of DSM-III. A study of co-occurrence of hierarchyfree syndromes. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1984;41:983–989.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
58.Lindal, E, Stefansson, JG. The lifetime prevalence of anxiety disorders in Iceland as estimated by the US National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1993;88:29–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59.Black, DW, Noyes, R. Comorbidity and obsessive-compulsive disorder. In: Maser, JD, Cloninger, CR, eds. Comorbidity of Mood and Anxiety Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1990.Google Scholar
60.Chen, YW, Dilsaver, SC. Comorbidity for obsessive-compulsive disorder in bipolar and unipolar disorders. Psychiatry Res. 1995;59:57–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61.Kruger, S, Cooke, RG, Hasey, GM, et al.Comorbidity of obsessive-compulsive disorder in bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord. 1995;34:117–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62.Thiel, A, Broocks, A, Ohlmeier, M, et al.Obsessive-compulsive disorder in patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152:72–75.Google ScholarPubMed
63.Eisen, JL, Beer, DA, Pato, MT, et al.Obsessive-compulsive disorder in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:271–273.Google ScholarPubMed
64.Perugi, G, Akiskal, HS, Pfanner, C, et al.The clinical impact of bipolar and unipolar affective comorbidity on obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Affect Disord. 1997;46:15–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65.Thornton, C, Russell, J. Obsessive-compulsive comorbidity in the dieting disorders. Int J Eat Disord. 1997;21:83–87.3.0.CO;2-P>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
66.Kasvikis, JG, Tsakiris, F, Marks, IM, et al.Women with obsessive-compulsive disorder frequently report a past history of anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 1986;5:1069–1075.3.0.CO;2-U>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
67.Rasmussen, SA, Eisen, JL. Epidemiology and clinical features of obsessive-compulsive disorder. In: Jenike, MA, Baer, L, Minichiello, WE, eds. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Theory and Management. 2nd ed. Chicago, Ill: Year Book Medical Publishing; 1990:10–27.Google Scholar
68.Fahy, TA, Oscar, A, Marks, I. History of eating disorders in female patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 1993;14:439–443.3.0.CO;2-6>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
69.Rosen, I. The clinical significance of obsessions in schizophrenia. J Merit Sci. 1957;103:778–785.Google ScholarPubMed
70.Fenton, WS, McGlashan, TH. The prognostic significance of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 1986;143:437–441.Google ScholarPubMed
71.Berman, I, Kalinowski, A, Berman, SM, et al.Obsessive and compulsive symptoms in chronic schizophrenia. Compr Psychiatry. 1995;36:6–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
72.Andrews, G. Comorbidity and the general neurotic syndrome. Br J Psychiatry. 1996;168(suppl 30):76–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
73.Crum, RM, Anthony, JC. Cocaine use and other suspected risk factors for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a prospective study with data from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area surveys. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1993;31:281–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
74.Ingram, IM. Obsessional illness in mental hospital patients. J Ment Sci. 1961;107:382–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
75.Lo, WH. A follow-up study of obsessional neurotics in Hong Kong Chinese. Br J Psychiatry. 1967;113:823–832.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
76.Breier, A, Charney, DS, Heninger, GR. Agoraphobia and panic disorder: development, diagnostic stability and course of illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986;43:1029–1036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
77.Welner, A, Reich, T, Robins, E, et al.Obsessive-compulsive neurosis: record, follow-up, and family studies. Compr Psychiatry. 1976;17:527–539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
78.Sanderson, WC, Beck, AT, Beck, J. Syndrome comorbidity in patients with major depression or dysthymia: prevalence and temporal relationship. Am J Psychiatry. 1990;147:1025–1028.Google ScholarPubMed
79.Rasmussen, SA. Genetic studies of obsessive compulsive disorder. In: Hollander, E, Zohar, J, Marazziti, D, Olivier, B, eds. Current Insights in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons; 1994.Google Scholar
80.Lenane, MC, Swedo, SE, Leonard, H, et al.Psychiatric disorders in first degree relatives of children and adolescents with obsessive compulsive disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1990;29:407–412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
81.Black, DW, Noyes, R, Goldstein, RB, et al.A family study of obsessive compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;149:362–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
82.Zohar, AH, Ratzoni, G, Pauls, DL, et al.An epidemiological study of obsessive-compulsive disorder and related disorders in Israeli adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31:1057–1061.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
83.Valleni-Basile, LA, Garrison, CZ, Jackson, KL, et al.Frequency of obsessive-compulsive disorder in a community sample of young adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994;33(6):782–791.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
84.Hantouche, EG, Bourgeois, M. Obsessive-compulsive disorders versus obsessive-compulsive syndromes. Comparative study of two surveys of the general population and of psychiatric consultants. Ann Med Psychol. 1995;153(5):314–325.Google ScholarPubMed
85.Pauls, DL, Alsobrook, JP, Goodman, W, et al.A family study of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152:76–84.Google ScholarPubMed
86.Valleni-Basile, LA, Garrison, CZ, Waller, JL, et al.Incidence of obsessive-compulsive disorder in a community sample of young adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35(7):898–906.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
87.Morris, MR, Blashfield, RK, Rankupalli, B, et al.Subclinical obsessive-compulsive disorder in college students. Depress Anxiety. 1996–1997;4:233–236.3.0.CO;2-E>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
88.Hantouche, EG, Bouhassira, M, Lancrenon, S, et al.Prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorders in a large French patient population in psychiatric consultation. Encéphale. 1995;21(5):571–580.Google Scholar
89.Maina, G, Albert, U, Bogetto, F, et al.Obsessive-compulsive syndromes in older adolescents. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1999;100:447–450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90.Berg, CZ, Rapoport, JL, Whitaker, A, et al.Childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder: a two-year prospective follow-up of a community sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1989;28:528–533.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
91.Swedo, SE, Leonard, HL, Garvey, M, et al.Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections: clinical description of the first 50 cases. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155:264–271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed