Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T08:43:59.379Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Non-Motor Aspects of Parkinson's Disease

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Leora L. Borek ,
Melissa M. Amick  and
Joseph H. Friedman
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Parkinson's disease is primarily considered to be a movement disorder and is defined by its motor signs. Yet, the behavioral manifestations of the disease are often more debilitating than its motor complications. This review will focus on the non-motor aspects of Parkinson's disease, including mood, psychosis, cognitive, sleep, fatigue, apathy, delirium, and repetitive disorders, that may occur. The phenomenology, pathology, and treatment of the behavioral symptoms of Parkinson's disease will be discussed.

Type
Review Articles
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 11 , Issue 7 , July 2006 , pp. 541 - 554
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.Hughes, AJ, Daniel, SE, Kilford, L, Lees, AJ. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease: a clinico-pathological study of 100 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992;55:181–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
2.Parkinson, J. An Essay on the Shaking Palsy. London, England: Sherwood, Neely and Jones; 1817.Google Scholar
3.Cummings, JL. Depression and Parkinson's disease: a review. Am J Psychiatry. 1992;149:443–454.Google Scholar
4.Dooneief, G, Mirabello, E, Bell, K, Marder, K, Stern, Y, Mayeux, R. An estimate of the incidence of depression in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol. 1992;49:305–307.Google Scholar
5.Zesiewicz, TA, Gold, M, Chari, G, Hauser, RA. Current issues in depression in Parkinson's disease. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1999;7:110–118.Google Scholar
6.Tandberg, E, Larsen, JP, Aarsland, D, Cummings, JL. The occurrence of depression in Parkinson's disease. A community-based study. Arch Neurol. 1996;53:175–179.Google Scholar
7.Liu, CY, Wang, SJ, Fuh, JL, Lin, CH, Yang, YY, Liu, HC. The correlation of depression with functional activity in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol. 1997;244:493–498.Google Scholar
8.Slaughter, JR, Slaughter, KA, Nichols, D, Holmes, SE, Martens, MP. Prevalence, clinical manifestations, etiology, and treatment of depression in Parkinson's disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001;13:187–196.Google Scholar
9.Henderson, R, Kurlan, R, Kersun, JM, Como, P. Preliminary examination of the comorbidity of anxiety and depression in Parkinson's disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1992;4:257–264.Google Scholar
10.McDonald, WM, Richard, IH, DeLong, MR. Prevalence, etiology, and treatment of depression in Parkinson's disease. Biol Psychiatry. 2003;54:363–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11.Paulus, W, Jellinger, K. The neuropathologic basis of different clinical subgroups of Parkinson's disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 1991;50:743–755.Google Scholar
12.Brown, AS, Gershon, S. Dopamine and depression. J Neural Transm Gen Sect. 1993;91:75–109.Google Scholar
13.Mayeux, R, Stern, Y, Cote, L, Williams, JB. Altered serotonin metabolism in depressed patients with Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1984;34:642–646.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Takeshita, S, Kurisu, K, Trop, L, Arita, K, Akimitsu, T, Verhoeff, NP. Effect of subthalamic stimulation on mood state in Parkinson's disease: evaluation of previous facts and problems. Neurosurg Rev. 2005;28:179–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
15.Starkstein, SE, Preziosi, TJ, Bolduc, PL, Robinson, RG. Depression in Parkinson's disease. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1990;178:27–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Cole, SA, Woodard, JL, Juncos, JL, Kogos, JL, Youngstrom, EA, Watts, RI. Depression and disability in Parkinson's disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1996;8:20–25.Google Scholar
17.Kostic, VS, Filipovic, SR, Lecic, D, Momcilovic, D, Sokic, D, Sternic, N. Effect of age at onset on frequency of depression in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1994;57:1265–1267.Google Scholar
18.Gotham, AM, Brown, RG, Marsden, CD. Depression in Parkinson's disease: a quantitative and qualitative analysis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1986;49:381–389.Google Scholar
19.Starkstein, SE, Petracca, G, Chemerinski, E, et al.Depression in classic versus akinetic-rigid Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 1998;13:29–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20.Tandberg, E, Larsen, JR, Aarsland, D, Laake, K, Cummings, JL. Risk factors for depression in Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol. 1997;54:625–630.Google Scholar
21.Menza, M, Marin, H, Kaufman, K, Mark, M, Lauritano, M. Citalopram treatment of depression in Parkinson's disease: the impact on anxiety, disability, and cognition. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2004;16:315–319.Google Scholar
22.Ehmann, TS, Beninger, RJ, Gawel, MJ, Riopelle, RJ. Depressive symptoms in Parkinson's disease: a comparison with disabled control subjects. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 1990;3:3–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23.Starkstein, SE, Mayberg, HS, Leiguarda, R, Preziosi, TJ, Robinson, RG. A prospective longitudinal study of depression, cognitive decline, and physical impairments in patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992;55:377–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24.Schrag, A, Jahanshahi, M, Quinn, NP. What contributes to depression in Parkinson's disease? Psychol Med. 2001;31:65–73.Google Scholar
25.Shulman, LM, Taback, RL, Rabinstein, AA, Weiner, WJ. Non-recognition of depression and other non-motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2002;8:193–197.Google Scholar
26.Weintraub, D, Moberg, PJ, Duda, JE, Katz, IR, Stern, MB. Effect of psychiatric and other nonmotor symptoms on disability in Parkinson's disease. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004;52:784–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27.Schrag, A, Jahanshahi, M, Quinn, N. What contributes to quality of life in patients with Parkinson's disease? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69:308–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
28.Kuopio, A, Marttila, RJ, Helenius, H, Toivonen, M, Rinne, UK. The quality of life in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2000;15:216–223.Google Scholar
29.Weintraub, D, Morales, KH, Moberg, PJ, et al.Antidepressant studies in Parkinson's disease: a review and meta-analysis. Mov Disord. 2005;20:1161–1169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Simons, JA. Fluoxetine in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 1996;11:581–582.Google Scholar
31.Steur, EN. Increase of Parkinson disability after fluoxetine medication. Neurology. 1993;43:211–213.Google Scholar
32.Jimenez-Jimenez, FJ, Tejeiro, J, Martinez-Junquera, G, Cabrera-Valdlvia, F, Alarcon, J, Garcia-Albea, E. Parkinsonism exacerbated by paroxetine. Neurology. 1994;44:2406.Google Scholar
33.Hesselink, JM. Serotonin and Parkinson's disease. Am J Psychiatry. 1993;150:843–844.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34.Caley, CF, Friedman, JH. Does fluoxetine exacerbate Parkinson's disease? J Clin Psychiatry. 1992;53:278–282.Google Scholar
35.Rampello, L, Chiechio, S, Raffaele, R, Vecchio, I, Nicoletti, F. The SSRI, Citalopram, improves bradykinesia in patients with Parkinson's disease treated with L-dopa. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2002;25:21–24.Google Scholar
36.Dell'Agnello, G, Ceravolo, R, Nuti, A, et al.SSRIs do not worsen Parkinson's disease: evidence from an open-label, prospective study. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2001;24:221–227.Google Scholar
37.Ceravolo, R, Nuti, A, Piccinni, A, et al.Paroxetine in Parkinson's disease: effects on motor and depressive symptoms. Neurology. 2000;55:1216–1218.Google Scholar
38.Gony, M, Lapeyre-Mestre, M, Montastruc, JL; French Network of Regional Pharmacovigilance Centers. Risk of serious extrapyramidal symptoms in patients with Parkinson's disease receiving antidepressant drugs: a pharmacoepidemiologic study comparing serotonin reuptake inhibitors and other antidepressant drugs. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2003;26:142–145.Google Scholar
39.Richard, IH, Kurlan, R, Tanner, C, et al.Serotonin syndrome and the combined use of deprenyl and an antidepressant in Parkinson's disease. Parkinson Study Group. Neurology. 1997;48:1070–1077.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
40.Aarsland, D, Larsen, JP, Waage, O, Langeveld, JH. Maintenance of electroconvulsive therapy for Parkinson's disease. Convuls Ther. 1997;13:274–277.Google Scholar
41.Moellentine, C, Rummans, T, Ahlskog, JE, et al.Effectiveness of ECT in patients with parkinsonism. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1998;10:187–193.Google Scholar
42.Weintraub, D, Oehlberg, KA, Katz, IR, Stern, MB. Test characteristics of the 15-item geriatric depression scale and Hamilton depression scale in Parkinson's disease. Am J Geriatr Psychiatr. 2006;14:169–175.Google Scholar
43.Richard, IH, Schiffer, RB, Kurlan, R. Anxiety and Parkinson's disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1996;8:383–392.Google ScholarPubMed
44.Walsh, K, Bennett, G. Parkinson's disease and anxiety. Postgrad Med J. 2001;77:89–93.Google Scholar
45.Stein, MB, Heuser, IJ, Juncos, JL, Uhde, TW. Anxiety disorders in patients with Parkinson's disease. Am J Psychiatry. 1990;147:217–220.Google Scholar
46.Menza, MA, Robertson-Hoffman, DE, Bonapace, AS. Parkinson's disease and anxiety: comorbidity with depression. Biol Psychiatry. 1993;34:465–470.Google Scholar
47.Henderson, R, Kurlan, R, Kersun, JM, Como, P. Preliminary examination of the comorbidity of anxiety and depression in Parkinson's disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1992;4:257–264.Google Scholar
48.Vazquez, A, Jimenez-Jimenez, FJ, Garcia-Rulz, P, Garcia-Urra, D. “Panic attacks” in Parkinson's disease. A long-term complication of levodopa therapy. Acta Neurol Scand. 1993;87:14–18.Google Scholar
49.Siemers, ER, Shekhar, A, Quaid, K, Dickson, H. Anxiety and motor performance in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 1993;8:501–506.Google Scholar
50.Menza, MA, Sage, J, Marshall, E, Cody, R, Duvolsln, R. Mood changes and “off-on” phenomena in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 1990;5:148–151.Google Scholar
51.Nissenbaum, H, Quinn, NP, Brown, RG, Toone, B, Gotham, AM, Marsden, CD. Mood swings associated with the “on-off” phenomenon in Parkinson's disease. Psychol Med. 1987;17:899–904.Google Scholar
52.Maricle, RA, Nutt, JG, Valentine, RJ, Carter, JH. Dose-response relationship of levodopa with mood and anxiety in fluctuating Parkinson's disease: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neurology. 1995;45:1757–1760.Google Scholar
53.Fetoni, V, Soliveri, P, Monza, D, Testa, D, Girotti, F. Affective symptoms in multiple system atrophy and Parkinson's disease: response to levodopa therapy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;66:541–544.Google Scholar
54.Arnold, G, Gasser, T, Storch, A, et al.High doses of pergolide improve clinical global impression in advanced Parkisnon's disease: a preliminary open label study. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2005;41:239–253.Google Scholar
55.Menza, M, Marin, H, Kaufman, K, Mark, M, Lauritano, M. Citalopram treatment of depression in Parkinson's disease: the impact on anxiety, disability, and cognition. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2004;16:315–319.Google Scholar
56.Fenelon, G, Goetz, CG, Karenberg, A. Hallucinations in Parkinson's disease in the prelevodopa era. Neurology. 2006;66:93–98.Google Scholar
57.Friedman, JH. The management of the levodopa psychoses. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1991;14:283–295.Google Scholar
58.Chou, KL, Messing, S, Oakes, D, Feldman, PD, Breler, A, Friedman, JH. Drug-Induced psychosis in Parkinson disease: phenomenology and correlations among psychosis rating instruments. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2005;28:215–219.Google Scholar
59.Friedman, JH, Factor, SA. Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2000;15:201–211.Google Scholar
60.Aarsland, D, Larsen, JP, Karisen, K, Lim, NG, Tandberg, E. Mental symptoms in Parkinson's disease are important contributors to caregiver distress. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1999;14:866–874.Google Scholar
61.Aarsland, D, Larsen, JP, Tandberg, E, Laake, K. Predictors of nursing home placement in Parkinson's disease: a population-based, prospective study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2000;48:938–942.Google Scholar
62.Goetz, CG, Stebbins, GT. Risk factors for nursing home placement in advanced Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1993;43:2227–2229.Google Scholar
63.Goetz, CG, Stebbins, GT. Mortality and hallucinations in nursing home patients with advanced Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1995;45:669–671.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
64.Low-dose clozapine for the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease. The Parkinson Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:757–763.Google Scholar
65.Pramipexole vs levodopa as initial treatment for Parkinson disease: a randomized controlled trial. Parkinson Study Group. JAMA. 2000;284:1931–1938.Google Scholar
66.Factor, SA, Feustel, PJ, Friedman, JH, et al.Longitudinal outcome of Parkinson's disease patients with psychosis. Neurology. 2003;60:1756–1761.Google Scholar
67.Pollak, P, Tison, F, Rascol, O, et al.Clozapine in drug induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease: a randomised, placebo controlled study with open follow up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75:689–695.Google Scholar
68.Fernandez, HH, Trieschmann, ME, Okun, MS. Rebound psychosis: effect of discontinuation of antipsychotics in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2005;20:104–105.Google Scholar
69.Friedman, JH. ‘Drug holidays’ in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. A brief review. Arch Intern Med. 1985;145:913–915.Google Scholar
70.McKeith, IG, Dickson, DW, Lowe, J, et al.Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: third report of the DLB Consortium. Neurology. 2005;65:1863–1872.Google Scholar
71.Chou, KL, Fernandez, HH. Combating psychosis in Parkinson's disease: the use of antipsychotic drugs. Expert Opin investig Drugs. 2006;15:339–349.Google Scholar
72.Dewey, RB Jr, O'Suilleabhain, PE. Treatment of drug-induced psychosis with quetiapine and clozapine in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2000;55:1753–1754.Google Scholar
73.Morgante, L, Epifanlo, A, Spina, E, et al.Quetiapine and clozapine in parkinsonian patients with dopaminergic psychosis. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2004;27:153–156.Google Scholar
74.Miyasaki, JM, Shannon, K, Voon, V, et al.Practice Parameter: evaluation and treatment of depression, psychosis, and dementia in Parkinson's disease (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2006;66:996–1002.Google Scholar
75.Ondo, WG, Tintner, R, Vuong, KD, Lai, D, Ringholz, G. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, unforced titration parallel trial of quetiapine for dopaminergic induced hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2005;20:958–963.Google Scholar
76.Rabey, JM, Prokhorov, T, Miniovich, A, Klein, C. The effect of quetiapine in Parkinson's disease (PD) psychotic patients: a double-blind labeled study of 3 months duration. Mov Disord. 2005;20(suppl 10):S46.Google Scholar
77.Friedman, JH, Koller, WC, Lannon, MC, Busenbark, K, Swanson-Hyland, E, Smith, D. Benztropine versus clozapine for the treatment of tremor in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1997;48:1077–1081.Google Scholar
78.Jansen, EN. Clozapine in the treatment of tremor in Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol Scand. 1994;89:262–265.Google Scholar
79.Alvir, JM, Lieberman, JA, Safferman, AZ, Schwlmmer, JL, Schaaf, JA. Clozapine-induced agranulocytosis. Incidence and risk factors in the United States. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:162–167.Google Scholar
80.Gomez-Esteban, JC, Zarranz, JJ, Velasco, F, et al.Use of ziprasldone in parkinsonian patients with psychosis. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2005;28:111–114.Google Scholar
81.Michelli, F, Taubenslag, N, Gatto, E, Scorticati, MC. Ziprasidone and psychosis in Parkinson disease. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2005;28:254.Google Scholar
82.Oechsner, M, Korchounov, A. Parenteral ziprasidone: a new atypical neuroleptic for emergency treatment of psychosis in Parkinson's disease? Hum Psychopharmacol. 2005;20:203–205.Google Scholar
83.Ford, B, Lynch, T, Greene, P. Risperidone in Parkinson's disease. Lancet. 1994;344:681.Google Scholar
84.Rich, SS, Friedman, JH, Ott, BR. Risperidone versus clozapine in the treatment of psychosis in six patients with Parkinson's disease and other akinetic-rigid syndromes. J Clin Psychiatry. 1995;56:556–559.Google Scholar
85.Mohr, E, Mendis, T, Hildebrand, K, De Deyn, PP. Risperidone in the treatment of dopamine-induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease: an open pilot trial. Mov Disord. 2000;15:1230–1237.Google Scholar
86.Meco, G, Alessandria, A, Bonifati, V, Giustini, P. Risperidone for hallucinations in levodopa-treated Parkinson's disease patients. Lancet. 1994;343:1370–1371.Google Scholar
87.Goetz, CG, Blasucci, LM, Leurgans, S, Pappert, EJ. Olanzapine and clozapine: comparative effects on motor function in hallucinating PD patients. Neurology. 2000;55:789–794.Google Scholar
88.Ondo, WG, Levy, JK, Vuong, KD, Hunter, C, Jankovic, J. Olanzapine treatment for dopamlnergic-induced hallucinations. Mov Disord. 2002;17:1031–1035.Google Scholar
89.Breier, A, Sutton, VK, Feldman, PD, et al.Olanzapine in the treatment of dopami-metic-induced psychosis in patients with Parkinson's disease. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;52:438–445.Google Scholar
90.Fernandez, HH, Trieschmann, ME, Friedman, JH. Aripiprazole for drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson disease: preliminary experience. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2004;27:4–5.Google Scholar
91.Friedman, JH, Berman, R, Carson, W, et al Low dose aripiprazole for the treatment of drug induced psychosis in Parkinson's disease. Poster presented at: Ninth International Congress of Parkinson's Disease and Movement Disorders. March 5-8, 2005; New Orleans, La.Google Scholar
92.Sanchez-Ramos, JR, Ortoll, R, Paulson, GW. Visual hallucinations associated with Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol. 1996;53:1265–1268.Google Scholar
93.Holroyd, S, Currie, L, Wooten, GF. Prospective study of hallucinations and delusions in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;70:734–738.Google Scholar
94.Fenelon, G, Mahieux, F, Huon, R, Ziegler, M. Hallucinations in Parkinson's disease: prevalence, phenomenology and risk factors. Brain. 2000;123 (pt 4):733–745.Google Scholar
95.Barnes, J, David, AS. Visual hallucinations in Parkinson's disease: a review and phenomenological survey. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;70:727–733.Google Scholar
96.Graham, JM, Grunewald, RA, Sagar, HJ. Hallucinosis in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1997;63:434–440.Google Scholar
97.Aarsland, D, Ballard, C, Larsen, JR, McKeith, I. A comparative study of psychiatric symptoms in dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson's disease with and without dementia. Intl J Ger Psychiatry. 2001;16:528–536.Google Scholar
98.Inzelberg, R, Kipervasser, S, Korczyn, AD. Auditory hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998;64:533–535.Google Scholar
99.Fenelon, G, Thobois, S. Bonnet, AM, Broussolle, E, Tison, F. Tactile hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol. 2002;249:1699–1703.Google Scholar
100.Tousi, B, Frankel, M. Olfactory and visual hallucinations in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2004;10:253–254.Google Scholar
101.Goetz, CG, Tanner, CM, Klawans, HL. Pharmacology of hallucinations induced by long-term drug therapy. Am J Psychiatry. 1982;139:494–497.Google Scholar
102.Williams, DR, Lees, AJ. Visual hallucinations in the diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease: a retrospective autopsy study. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4:605–610.Google Scholar
103.Harding, AJ, Stimson, E, Henderson, JM, Halliday, GM. Clinical correlates of selective pathology in the amygdala of patients with Parkinson's disease. Brain. 2002;25:2431–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
104.Pillon, B. Neuropsychological assessment for management of patients with deep brain stimulation. Mov Disord. 2002;17:S116–S122.Google Scholar
105.Stout, JC, Johnson, SA. Cognitive impairment and dementia in basal ganglia disorders. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2005;5:355–363.Google Scholar
106.Cronin-Golomb, A, Amick, MM. Spatial abilities in aging, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. In: Boller, F, Cappa, S, eds. Aging and Dementia. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier; 2001:119–144.Google Scholar
107.Saint-Cyr, JA, Trepanier, LL. Neuropsychologic assessment of patients for movement disorder surgery. Mov Disord. 2000;15:771–783.Google Scholar
108.Owen, AM. Cognitive dysfunction in Parkinson's disease: the role of frontostriatal circuitry. Neuroscientist. 2004;10:525–537.Google Scholar
109.Kish, SJ, Shannak, K, Hornykiewicz, O. Uneven pattern of dopamine loss in the striatum of patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Pathophysiologic and clinical implications. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:876–880.Google Scholar
110.Middleton, FA, Strick, PL. Basal ganglia output and cognition: evidence from anatomical, behavioral, and clinical studies. Brain Cogn. 2000;42:183–200.Google Scholar
111.Middleton, FA, Strick, PL. Basal ganglia and cerebellar loops: motor and cognitive circuits. Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2000;31:236–250.Google Scholar
112.Clower, DM, Dum, RR, Strick, PL. Basal ganglia and cerebellar inputs to ‘AIP’. Cereb Cortex. 2005;15:913–920.Google Scholar
113.Fernandez, HH, Shinobu, L. Dementia and psychosis. In: Pahwa, R, Lyons, K, Koller, W. eds. Therapy of Parkinson's Disease. 3rd ed. rev. expanded. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Inc.; 2004:399–423.Google Scholar
114.Apaydin, H, Ahlskog, JE, Parisi, JE, Boeve, BF, Dickson, DW. Parkinson disease neuropathology: later-developing dementia and loss of the levodopa response. Arch Neurol. 2002;59:102–112.Google Scholar
115.Aarsland, D, Andersen, K, Larsen, JR, Lolk, A, Kragh-Sorensen, P. Prevalence and characteristics of dementia in Parkinson disease: an 8-year prospective study. Arch Neurol. 2003;60:387–392.Google Scholar
116.Marder, K, Tang, MX, Cote, L, Stern, Y, Mayeux, R. The frequency and associated risk factors for dementia in patients with Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol. 1995;52:695–701.Google Scholar
117.Hobson, R, Meara, J. Risk and incidence of dementia in a cohort of older subjects with Parkinson's disease in the United Kingdom. Mov Disord. 2004;19:1043–1049.Google Scholar
118.Hughes, TA, Ross, HF, Musa, S, et al.A 10-year study of the incidence of and factors predicting dementia in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2000;54:1596–1602.Google Scholar
119.Mahieux, F, Fenelon, G, Flahault, A, Manifacier, MJ, Michelet, D, Boller, F. Neuropsychological prediction of dementia in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1998;64:178–183.Google Scholar
120.Levy, G, Jacobs, DM, Tang, MX, et al.Memory and executive function impairment predict dementia in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2002;17:1221–1226.Google Scholar
121.Janvin, CC, Aarsland, D, Larsen, JP. Cognitive predictors of dementia in Parkinson's disease: a community-based, 4-year longitudinal study. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2005;18:149–154.Google Scholar
122.Woods, SR, Troster, A. Prodromal frontal/executive dysfunction predicts incident dementia in Parkinson's disease. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2003;9:17–24.Google Scholar
123.Hughes, AJ, Daniel, SE, Kilford, L, Lees, AJ. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease: a clinico-pathologlcal study of 100 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992;55:181–184.Google Scholar
124.Braak, H, Rub, U, Jansen Steur, EN, Del Tredici, K, de Vos, RA. Cognitive status correlates with neuropathologic stage in Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2005;64:1404–1410.Google Scholar
125.Pillon, B, Boller, F, Levy, R, Dubois, B. Cognitive deficits and dementia in Parkinson's disease. In: Boller, F, Cappa, S, eds. Aging and Dementia. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier; 2001:311–372.Google Scholar
126.McKeith, IG, Ballard, CG, Perry, RH, et al.Prospective validation of consensus criteria for the diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies. Neurology 2000;54:1050–1058.Google Scholar
127.Zakzanis, KK, Freedman, M. A neuropsychological comparison of demented and non-demented patients with Parkinson's disease. Appl Neuropsychol. 1999;6:129–146.Google Scholar
128.Emre, M, Aarsland, D. Albanese, A, et al.Rivastigmine for dementia associated with Parkinson's disease. N Eng J Med. 2004;351:2509–2518.Google Scholar
129.Ravina, B, Putt, M, Siderowf, A, et al.Donepezil for dementia in Parkinson's disease: a randomized, double blind, placebo controlled, crossover study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76:934–939.Google Scholar
130.Aarsland, D, Hutchinson, M, Larsen, JP. Cognitive, psychiatric and motor response to galantamine in Parkinson's disease with dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2003;18:937–941.Google Scholar
131.Giladi, N, Shabai, H, Gurevitch, T, Benbunan, B, Anca, M, Korczyn, AD. Rivastigmine (Exelon) for dementia in patients with Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol Scand. 2003;108:368–373.Google Scholar
132.Starkstein, SE, Mayberg, HS, Preziosi, TJ, Andrezejewski, P, Leiguarda, R, Robinson, RG. Reliability, validity, and clinical correlates of apathy in Parkinson's disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1992;4:134–139.Google Scholar
133.Luck, GC, Brown, RG. Apathy in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002;73:636–642.Google Scholar
134.Levy, R, Dubois, B. Apathy and the functional anatomy of the prefrontal cortex-basal ganglia circuits. Cereb Cortex. 2005 Oct 5; [Epub ahead of print].Google Scholar
135.Madeley, R, Biggins, CA, Boyd, JL, et al.Emotionalism in Parkinson's disease. Ir J Psychol Med. 1992;9:24–25.Google Scholar
136.Marsh, L, McDonald, WM, Cummings, J, Ravina, B; NINDS/NIMH Work Group on Depression and Parkinson's Disease. Provisional diagnostic criteria for depression in Parkinson's disease: report of an NINDS/NIMH Work Group. Mov Disord. 2006;21:148–158.Google Scholar
137.Schiffer, R, Pope, LE. Review of pseudobulbar affect including a novel and potential therapy. J Neuropsychiatr Clin Neurosci. 2005;17:447–454.Google Scholar
138.Brust, JCM, Delirium. In: Jeste, DV, Friedman, JH, eds. Psychiatry for Neurologists. Humana Press: Boston, Mass; 2005:307–312.Google Scholar
139.Tandberg, E, Larsen, JP, Karisen, K. A community-based study of sleep disorders in patients with Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 1998;13:895–899.Google Scholar
140.Partinen, M. Sleep disorder related to Parkinson's disease. J Neurol. 1997;244(4 suppl 1):S3–S6.Google Scholar
141.Nausieda, PA, Weiner, WJ, Kaplan, LR, Weber, S, Klawans, HL. Sleep disruption in the course of chronic levodopa therapy: an early feature of the levodopa psychosis. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1982;5:183–194.Google Scholar
142.van Hilten, JJ, Weggeman, M, van der Velde, EA, Kerkhof, GA, van Dijk, JG, Roos, RA. Sleep, excessive daytime sleepiness and fatigue in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Transm Park Dis Sect. 1993;5:235–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
143.Lees, AS, Blackburn, NA, Campbell, VL, The nighttime problems of Parkinson's disease. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1988;11:512–519.Google Scholar
144.Thorpy, MJ. Sleep disorders in Parkinson's disease. Clin Cornerstone. 2004;6(suppl 1A):S7–S15.Google Scholar
145.Friedman, JH, Chou, KL. Sleep and fatigue in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2004;10(suppl 1):S27–S35.Google Scholar
146.Garcia-Borreguero, D, Larrosa, O, Bravo, M. Parkinson's disease and sleep. Sleep Med Rev. 2003;7:115–129.Google Scholar
147.Larsen, JR, Tandberg, E. Sleep disorders in patients with Parkinson's disease. CNS Drugs. 2001;15:267–275.Google Scholar
148.Adler, CH, Thorpy, MJ. Sleep issues in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2005;64(suppl 3)S12–S20.Google Scholar
149.Grandas, F, Iranzo, A. Nocturnal problems occurring in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2004;63(suppl 3):S8–S11.Google Scholar
150.Cornelia, CL. Sleep disturbances in Parkinson's disease. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2003;3:173–180.Google Scholar
151.Wetter, TC, Collado-Seidel, V, Polmacher, T, Yassouridis, A, Trenkwalder, C. Sleep and periodic leg movement patterns in drug-free patients with Parkinson's disease and multiple system atrophy. Sleep. 2000; 23:361–367.Google Scholar
152.Kumar, S, Bhatia, M, Behari, M. Sleep disorders in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2002;17:775–781.Google Scholar
153.Starkstein, SE, Preziosi, TJ, Robinson, RG. Sleep disorders, pain and depression in Parkinson's disease. Eur Neurol. 1991;31:352–355.Google Scholar
154.Goetz, CG, Wilson, RS, Tanner, CM, Garron, DC. Relationships among pain, depression and sleep alterations in Parkinson's disease. Adv Neurol. 1987;45:345–347.Google Scholar
155.Caap-Ahlgren, Dehlin O. Insomnia and depressive symptoms in patients with Parkinson's disease. Relationship to health-related quality of life. An interview study of patients living at home. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2001;32:23–33.Google Scholar
156.Happe, S, Ludemann, R, Berger, K; FAQT study investigators. The association between disease severity and sleep- related problems in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychobiology. 2002;46:90–96.Google Scholar
157.Borek, LL, Kohn, R, Friedman, JH. Mood and sleep in Parkinson's disease. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67:958–963.Google Scholar
158.Ongini, E, Caporali, MG, Massotti, M. Stimulation of dopamine D-1 receptors by SKF 38393 induces EEG desynchronization and behavioral arousal. Life Sci. 1985;37:2327–2333.Google Scholar
159.Trampus, M, Ferri, N, Monopoli, Ongini E. The dopamine D1 receptor is involved in the regulation of REM sleep in the rat. Eur J Pharmacol. 1991;194:189–194.Google Scholar
160.van Hilten, B, Hoff, JI, Middelkoop, HA. et al.Sleep disruption in Parkinson's disease. Assessment by continous activity monitoring. Arch Neurol. 1994;51:922–928.Google Scholar
161.Factor, SA, McAlarney, T, Sanchez-Ramos, JR, Weiner, WJ. Sleep disorders and sleep effect in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 1990;5:280–285.Google Scholar
162.Tandberg, E, Larsen, JP, Karlsen, K. Excessive daytime sleepiness and sleep benefit in Parkinson's disease: a community-based study. Mov Disord. 1999;14:922–927.Google Scholar
163.Ondo, WG, Dat Vuong, K, Khan, H, Atassi, F, Kwak, C, Jankovic, J. Daytime sleepiness and other sleep disorders in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2001;57:1392–1396.Google Scholar
164.Frucht, S, Rogers, JD, Greene, PE, Gordon, MR, Fahn, S. Falling asleep at the wheel: motor vehicle mishaps in persons taking pramipexole and ropinirole. Neurology. 1999;52:1908–1910.Google Scholar
165.Ferreira, JJ, Galitzky, M, Montastruc, JL, Rascol, O. Sleep attacks and Parkinson's disease treatment. Lancet. 2000;15:1333–1334.Google Scholar
166.Schapira, AH. Sleep attacks (sleep episodes) with pergolide. Lancet. 2000;355:1332–1333.Google Scholar
167.Hauser, RA, Gauger, L, Anderson, WM, Zesiewicz, TA. Pramlpexole-induced somnolence and episodes of daytime sleep. Mov Disord. 2000;15:658–663.Google Scholar
168.Olanow, CW, Schapira, AH, Roth, T. Waking up to sleep episodes in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2000;15:212–215.Google Scholar
169.Askenasy, JJ. Sleep disturbances in Parkinsonism. J Neural Transm. 2003;110:125–150.Google Scholar
170.Hardie, RJ, Efthimiou, J, Stern, GM. Respiration and sleep in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1986;49:1326.Google Scholar
171.Maria, B, Sophia, S, Michalis, M, et al.Sleep breathing disorders in patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Respir Med. 2003;97:1151–1157.Google Scholar
172.Happe, S, Schrodl, B, Faltl, M, Muller, C, Auff, E, Zeitlhofer, J. Sleep disorders and depression in patients with Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol Scand. 2001;104:275–280.Google Scholar
173.Ferini-Strambi, L, Franceschi, M, Pinto, P, Zucconi, M, Smirne, S. Respiration and heart rate variability during sleep in untreated Parkinson patients. Gerontology. 1992;38:92–98.Google Scholar
174.Ancoli-Israel, S, Kripke, DF, Klauber, MR, et al.Morbidity, mortality and sleep-disordered breathing in community dwelling elderly. Sleep. 1996;19:277–282.Google Scholar
175.Ondo, WG, Vuong, KD, Jankovic, J. Exploring the relationship between Parkinson's disease and restless legs syndrome. Arch Neurol. 2002;59:421–424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
176.Krishnan, PR, Bhatia, M, Behari, M. Restless legs syndrome in Parkinson's disease: a case-controlled study. Mov Disord. 2003;18:181–185.Google Scholar
177.Allen, RP, Picchietti, D, Hening, WA, Trenkwalder, C, Walters, AS, Montplaisi, J; Restless Legs Syndrome Diagnosis and Epidemiology workshop at the National institute of Health; International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group. Restless legs syndrome: diagnostic criteria, special considerations, and epidemiology. A report from the restless legs syndrome diagnosis and epidemiology workshop at the National Institutes of Health. Sleep Med. 2003;4:101–119.Google Scholar
178.Sharf, B, Moskovitz, C, Lupton, MD, Klawans, HL. Dream phenomena induced by chronic levodopa therapy. J Neural Transm. 1978;43:143–151.Google Scholar
179.The International Classification of Sleep Disorders, Revised: Diagnostic and Coding Manual. Rochester, Minn: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2001.Google Scholar
180.Schenck, CH, Mahowald, MW. REM sleep behavior disorder: clinical, developmental and neurosclence perspectives 16 years after its formal identification in SLEEP. Steep. 2002;25:120–138.Google Scholar
181.Olson, EJ, Boeve, BF, Silber, MH. Rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder: demographic, clinical and laboratory findings in 93 cases. Brain. 2000;123:331–339.Google Scholar
182.Scaglione, C, Vignatelli, L, Plazzi, G, et al.REM sleep behaviour disorder in Parkinson's disease: a questionnaire-based study. Neurol Sci. 2005;25:316–321.Google Scholar
183.Gagnon, JF, Bedard, MA, Fantini, ML, et al.REM sleep behavior disorder and REM sleep without atonia in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2002;59:585–589.Google Scholar
184.Johns, MW. A new method for measuring daytime sleepiness: the Epworth sleepiness scale. Sleep. 1991;14:540–545.Google Scholar
185.Swift, CG, Shapiro, CM. ABC of sleep disorders. Sleep and sleep problems in elderly people. BMJ. 1993;306:1468–1471.Google Scholar
186.Kirk, J, Douglass, R, Nelson, E, et al.Chief complaint of fatigue: a prospective study. J Fam Pract. 1990;30:33–39.Google Scholar
187.Swain, MG. Fatigue in chronic disease. Clin Sci (Lond). 2000;99:1–8.Google Scholar
188.Krupp, LB, Pollina, DA. Mechanisms and management of fatigue in progressive neurological disorders. Curr Opin Neurol. 1996;9:456–460.Google Scholar
189.Krupp, LB. Fatigue in Multiple Sclerosis: A Guide to Diagnosis and Management. New York, NY: Demos Medical Publishing; 2004.Google Scholar
190.Lou, JS, Kearns, G, Oken, B, Sexton, G, Nutt, J. Exacerbated physical fatigue and mental fatigue in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord. 2001;16:190–196.Google Scholar
191.Friedman, J, Friedman, H. Fatigue in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1993;43:2016–2018.Google Scholar
192.van Hilten, JJ, Hoogland, G, van der Velde, EA, Middelkoop, HA, Kerkhof, GA, Roos, RA. Diurnal effects of motor activity and fatigue in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1993;56:874–877.Google Scholar
193.Abe, K, Takanashi, M, Yanagihara, T. Fatigue in patients with Parkinson's disease. Behav Neurol. 2000;12:103–106.Google Scholar
194.Herlofson, K, Larsen, JP. Measuring fatigue in patients with Parkinson's disease- the Fatigue Severity Scale. Eur J Neurol. 2002;9:595–600.Google Scholar
195.Alves, G, Wentzel-Larsen, T, Aarsland, D, Larsen, JP. Progression of motor impairment and disability in Parkinson disease: a population-based study. Neurology. 2005;65:1436–1441.Google Scholar
196.Smets, EM, Garssen, B, Bonke, B, De Haes, JC. The Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory (MFI) psychometric qualities of an instrument to assess fatigue. J Psychosom Res. 1995;39:315–325.Google Scholar
197.Shifflto, G, Friedman, JH, Oakes, D, et al. Fatigue in ELLDOPA. Poster presented at: the World Parkinson Congress. Feb 22-26, 2006; Washington, DC.Google Scholar
198.Abe, K, Takanashi, M, Yanagihara, T, Sakoda, S. Pergolide mesilate may improve fatigue in patients with Parkinson's disease. Behav Neurol. 2001;13:117–121.Google Scholar
199.Herlofson, K, Larsen, JP. The influence of fatigue on health-related quality of life in patients with Parkinson's disease. Acta Neurol Scand. 2003;107:1–6.Google Scholar
200.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
201.Brown, RG, Dittner, A, Findley, L, Wessely, SC. The Parkinson fatigue scale. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2005;11:49–55.Google Scholar
202.Levi, S, Cox, M, Lugon, M, Hodkinson, M, Tomkins, A. Increased energy expenditure in Parkinson's disease. BMJ. 1990;301:1256–1257.Google Scholar
203.Markus, HS, Cox, M, Tomkins, AM. Raised resting energy expenditure in Parkinson's disease and its relationship to muscle rigidity. Clin Sci(Lond). 1992;83:199–204.Google Scholar
204.Broussolle, E, Borson, F, Gonzalez de Suso, JM, et al.Increase of energy expenditure in Parkinson's disease. Rev Neurol (Paris). 1991;147:46–51.Google Scholar
205.Tzelepis, GE, McCool, FD, Friedman, JH, Hoppin, FG Jr.Respiratory muscle dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. Am Rev Resp Dis. 1988;138:266–271.Google Scholar
206.Garber, CE, Friedman, JH. Effects of fatigue on physical activity and function in patients with Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2003;60:1119–1124.Google Scholar
207.Friedman, JH, Friedman, H. Fatigue in Parkinson's disease: a nine-year follow-up. Mov Disord. 2001;16:1120–1122.Google Scholar
208.Driver-Dunckley, E, Samanta, J, Stacy, M. Pathological gambling associated with dopamine agonist therapy in Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 2003;61:422–423.Google Scholar
209.Serrano-Duenas, M. Chronic dopamimetic drug addiction and pathologic gambling in patient with Parkinson's disease-presentation of four cases. Ger J Psychiatry. 2002;5:62–66.Google Scholar
210.Dodd, ML, Klos, KJ, Bower, JH, Geda, YE, Josephs, KA, Ahlskog, JE. Pathological gambling caused by drugs used to treat Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol. 2005;62:1377–1381.Google Scholar
211.Voon, V. Repetition, repetition, and repetition: compulsive and punding behaviors in Parkinson's. Mov Disord. 2004;19:367–370.Google Scholar
212.Nirenberg, MJ, Waters, C. Compulsive eating and weight gain related to dopamine agonist use. Mov Disord. 2006;21:524–529.Google Scholar
213.Klos, KJ, Bower, JH, Josephs, KA, Matsumoto, JY, Ahlskog, JE. Pathological hypersexuality predominantly linked to adjuvant dopamine agonist therapy in Parkinson's disease and multiple system atrophy. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2005;11:381–386.Google Scholar
214.Friedman, JH. Punding on levodopa. Biol Psychiatry. 1994;36:350–351.Google Scholar
215.Fernandez, HH, Friedman, JH. Punding on L-dopa. Mov Disord. 1999;14:836–838.Google Scholar
216.Kurlan, R. Disabling repetitive behaviors in Parkinson's Disease. Mov Disord. 2004;19:433–437.Google Scholar
217.Magerkurth, C, Cshnitzer, R, Braune, S. Symptoms of autonomic failure in Parkinson's disease: Prevalence and impact on daily life. Clin Auton Res. 2005; 15:76–82.Google Scholar
218.Dewey, RB Jr.Autonomic dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. Neurol Clin. 2004;22(3 suppl):S127–S139.Google Scholar
219.Orimo, S, Amino, T, Itoh, Y, et al.Cardiac sympathetic denervation precedes neuronal loss in the sympathetic ganglia in Lewy body disease. Acta Neuropathol (Berl). 2005;109:583–588.Google Scholar
220.Muller, CM, De Vos, RA, Maurage, CA, Thal, DR, Tolnay, M, Braak, H. Staging of sporadic Parkinsons disease-related alpha-synucfein pathology: inter- and intra-rater reliability. J Neuropath Exp Neurol. 2005;64:623–628.Google Scholar