Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T01:32:04.997Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mechanisms and the Current State of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Mark S. George ,
Ziad Nahas ,
F. Andrew Kozel ,
Xingbao Li ,
Kaori Yamanaka ,
Alexander Mishory  and
Daryl E. Bohning
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is unique among the current brain stimulation techniques because it is relatively non-invasive. TMS markedly differs from vagus nerve stimulation, deep brain stimulation and magnetic seizure therapy, all of which require either an implanted prosthesis or general anesthesia, or both. Since its rebirth in its modern form in 1985, TMS has already shown potential usefulness in at least three important domains—as a basic neuroscience research instrument, as a potential clinical diagnostic tool, and as a therapy for several different neuropsychiatric conditions. The TMS scientific literature has now expanded beyond what a single summary article can adequately cover. This review highlights several new developments in combining TMS with functional brain imaging, using TMS as a psychiatric therapy, potentially using TMS to enhance performance, and finally recent advances in the core technology of TMS. TMS' ability to non-invasively and focally stimulate the brain of an awake human is proving to be a most important development for neuroscience in general, and neuropsychiatry in particular.

Type
Review Article
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 8 , Issue 7: Brain Stimulation Methods in the Treatment of Affective Disorders , July 2003 , pp. 496 - 514
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.Barker, AT, Jalinous, R, Freeston, IL. Non-invasive magnetic stimulation of the human motor cortex. Lancet. 1985;1:1106–1107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
2.Ajmone-Marsan, C. Focal electrical stimulation. In: Purpura, DP, Penry, JK, Tower, DB, Woodbury, DM, Walter, RD, eds. Experimental Models of Epilepsy. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1972:147–172.Google Scholar
3.George, MS, Belmaker, RH. Transcranial magnetic stimulation In: George, MS, Belmaker, RH, eds. Neuropsychiatry. 1st ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 2000.Google Scholar
4.George, MS, Lisanby, SH, Sackeim, HA. transcranial magnetic stimulation: applications in neuropsychiatry. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56:300–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5.Barker, AT, Freeston, IL, Jarratt, JA, Jalinous, R. Magnetic stimulation of the human nervous system: an introduction and basic principles. In: Chokroverty, S, ed. Magnetic Stimulation in Clinical Neurophysiology. Boston, Mass: Butterworth's; 1989:55–72.Google Scholar
6.Council, NR. Possible Health Effects of Exposure to Residential Electric and Magnetic Fields. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1996.Google Scholar
7.Wassermann, EM. Risk and safety of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: report and suggested guidelines from the International Workshop in the Safety of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation; June 5-7, 1996. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1998;108:1–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8.Roth, BJ, Saypol, JM, Hallett, M, Cohen, LG. A Theoretical calculation of the electric field induced in the cortex during magnetic stimulation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1991;81:47–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
9.George, MS. Transcranial magnetic stimulation: mapping and modifying brain-behavior relationships. CNS Spectr. 1997;2:1–68.Google Scholar
10.George, MS, Nahas, Z, Lomarev, M, Bohning, DE, Kellner, CH. How knowledge of regional drain dysfunction in depression will enable new somatic treatments in the next millenium. CNS Spectr. 1999;4:53–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
11.Kozel, FA, George, MS, Simpson, KN. Decision analysis of cost effectiveness of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation versus electroconvulsive therapy for Treatment of non-psychotic severe depression. CNS Spectr. In press.Google Scholar
12.Martin, JD, George, MS, Greenberg, BD, et al.Mood effects of prefrontal repetitive High-Frequency TMS in Healthy Volunteers. CNS Spectr. 1997;2:53–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13.Post, RM, Kimbrell, TA, Frye, M, et al.Implications of kindling and quenching for the possible frequency dependence of rTMS. CNS Spectr. 1997;2:54–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14.Shastri, A, George, MS, Bohning, DE. Performance of a system for interleaving transcranial magnetic stimulation with steady state magnetic resonance imaging. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol Suppl. 1999;51:55–64.Google ScholarPubMed
15.Pascual-Leone, A, Wasserman, EM, Davey, NJ, eds. Handbook of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. London, England: Oxford University Press; 2002.Google Scholar
16.Mills, KR. Magnetic Stimulation of the Human Nervous System. London, England: Oxford University Press; 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
17.Amassian, VE, Eberle, L, Maccabee, PJ, Cracco, RQ. Modelling magnetic coil excitation of human cerebral cortex with a peripheral nerve immersed in a brain-shaped volume conductor: the significance of fiber bending in excitation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1992;85:291–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
18.Davey, KR, Cheng, CH, Epstein, CM. Prediction of magnetically induced electric fields in biologic tissue. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 1991;38:418–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
19.Penfield, W, Jasper, H. Epilepsy and the Functional Anatomy of the Human Brain. 8 ed Boston, Mass: Little, Brown and Company; 1954.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
20.George, MS, Nahas, Z, Lisanby, SH, Schlaepfer, T, Kozel, FA, Greenberg, BD. Transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2003; In press.Google Scholar
21.Graziano, MSA, Taylor, CSR, Moore, T. Complex movements evoked by microstimulation of precentral cortex. Neuron. 2002;34:841–851.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22.Ziemann, U, Hallett, M. Basic neurophysiological studies with TMS. In: George, MS, Belmaker, RH, eds. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Neuropsychiatry. 1st ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 2000:45–98.Google Scholar
23.Greenberg, BD, Ziemann, U, Harmon, A, Murphy, DL, Wassermann, EM. Reduced intracortical inhibition in obsessive-compulsive disorder on transcranial magnetic stimulation. Lancet. 1998;352:881–882.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
24.Ziemann, U, Steinhoff, BJ, Tergau, F, Paulus, W. Transcranial magnetic stimulation: its current role in epilepsy research. Epilepsy Res. 1998;30:11–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
25.Epstein, CM, Lah, JJ, Meador, K, Weissman, JD, Gaitan, LE, Dihenia, B. Optimum stimulus parameters for lateralized suppression of speech with magnetic brain stimulation. Neurology. 1996;47:1590–1593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
26.Grill, WM, McIntyre, CC. Extracellular excitation of central neurons: implications for the mechanisms of deep brain stimulation. Thalamus and Related Systems. 2001;1:269–277.Google Scholar
27.Bear, MF. Homosynaptic long-term depression: a meachanism for memory? Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999;96:9457–9458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
28.Stanton, PK, Sejnowsky, TJ. Associative long-term depression in the hippocampus induced by hebbian covariance. Nature. 1989;339:215–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29.Malenka, RC, Nicoll, RA. Long-term potentiation: a decade of progress? Science. 1999;285:1870–1974.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Wang, H, Wang, X, Scheich, H. LTD and LTP induced by transcranial magnetic stimulation in auditory cortex. Neuroreport. 1996;7:521–525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31.Chen, R, Classen, J, Gerloff, C, et al.Depression of motor cortex excitability by low-frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurology. 1997;48:1398–1403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
32.Wu, T, Sommer, M, Tergau, F, Paulus, W. Lasting influence of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on intracortical excitability in human subjects. Neurosci Lett. 2000;287:37–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33.Desmurget, M, Epstein, CM, Turner, RS, Prablanc, C, Alexander, GE, Grafton, ST. Role of the posterior parietal cortex in updating reaching movements to a visual target. Nat Neurosci. 1999;2:563–567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34.Epstein, CM, Verson, R, Zangaladze, A. Magnetic coil stimulation suppresses visual perception at an extra-calcarine site. J Clin Neurophysiol. 1996;13:247–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35.Grafman, J, Wassermann, E. Transcranial magnetic stimulation can measure and modulate learning and memory. Neuropsychologia. 1999;37:159–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36.Flitman, SS, Grafman, J, Wassermann, EM, et al.Linguistic processing during repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurology. 1998;50:175–181.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
37.Cohrs, S, Tergau, F, Korn, J, Becker, W, Hajak, G. Suprathreshold repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation elevates thyroid-stimulating hormone in healthy male subjects. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2001;189:393–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38.Szuba, MP, O'Reardon, JP, Rai, AS, et al.Acute mood and thyroid stimulating hormone effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation in major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;50:22–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39.George, MS, Wassermann, EM, Williams, WA, et al.Changes in mood and hormone levels after rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) of the prefrontal cortex. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1996;8:172–80.Google ScholarPubMed
40.George, MS, Wassermann, EM, Williams, W, et al.Changes in mood and hormone levels after rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation of the prefrontal cortex. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1996;8:172–180.Google ScholarPubMed
41.Grafman, J. TMS as a primary brain mapping tool. In: George, MS, Belmaker, RH, eds. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Neuropsychiatry. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 2000:115–140.Google Scholar
42.George, MS, Lisanby, SH, Sackeim, HA. Transcranial magnetic stimulation—applications in neuropsychiatry. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56:300–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
43.Lisanby, SH, Luber, B, Finck, D, et al.Primate models of transcranial magnetic stimulation. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;41:76s.Google Scholar
44.Baker, SN, Olivier, E, Lemon, RN. Recording an identified pyramidal volley evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation in a conscious macaque monkey. Exp Brain Res. 1995;99:529–532.Google Scholar
45.Fleischmann, A, Sternheim, A, Etgen, AM, Li, C, Grisaru, N, Belmaker, RH. Transcranial magnetic stimulation downregulates beta-adrenoreceptors in rat cortex. J Neural Transm. 1996;103:1361–1366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46.Tsutsumi, T, Fujiki, M, Akiyoshi, J, et al.Effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on forced swimming test. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2002;26:107–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47.Ben-Sachar, D, Belmaker, RH, Grisaru, N, Klein, E. Transcranial magnetic stimulation induces alterations in brain monoamines. J Neural Transm. 1997;104:191–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
48.Jennum, P, Klitgaard, H. Effect of acute and chronic stimulations on pentylenetetrazole-induced clonic seizures. Epilepsy Res. 1996;23:115–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49.Pope, A, Keck, ME. TMS as a therapeutic tool in psychiatry: what do we know about neurobiological mechanisms? J Psychiatr Res. 2001;35:193–215.Google Scholar
50.Weissman, JD, Epstein, CM, Davey, KR. Magnetic brain stimulation and brain size: relevance to animal studies. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1992;85:215–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51.Belmaker, RH, Einat, H, Levkovitz, Y, Segal, M, Grisaru, N. TMS effects in animal models of depression and mania. In: George, MS, Belmaker, RH, eds. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Neuropsychiatry. 1 ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 2000:99–114.Google Scholar
52.Bohning, DE, Shastri, A, Nahas, Z, et al.Echoplanar BOLD fMRI of Brain activation induced by concurrent transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Invest Radiol. 1998;33:336–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
53.Bohning, DE, Shastri, A, McConnell, K, et al.A combined TMS/fMRI study of intensity-dependent TMS over motor cortex. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;45:385–394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
54.Bohning, DE, Shastri, A, Wassermann, EM, et al.BOLD-fMRI response to single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). J Magn Reson Imaging. 2000;11:569–574.3.0.CO;2-3>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
55.Bohning, DE, Shastri, A, McGavin, L, et al.Motor cortex brain activity induced by 1-Hz transcranial magnetic stimulation is similar in location and level to that for volitional movement. Invest Radiol. 2000;35:676–683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56.Baudewig, J, Siebner, HR, Bestmann, S, et al.Functional MRI of cortical activations induced by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Neuroreport. 2001;12:3543–3548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
57.Kemna, LJ, Gembris, D. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation induces different responses in different cortical areas: a functional magnetic resonance study in humans. Neurosci Lett. 2003;336:85–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
58.Nahas, Z, Lomarev, M, Roberts, DR, et al.Unilateral left prefrontal transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) produces intensity-dependent bilateral effects as measured by interleaved BOLD fMRI. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;50:712–720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
59.Strafella, AP, Paus, T, Barrett, J, Dagher, A. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the human prefrontal cortex induces dopamine release in the caudate nucleus [abstract]. J Neurosci. 2001;21:RC157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
60.Paus, T, Castro-Alamancos, MA, Petrides, M. Cortico-cortical connectivity of the human mid-dorsolateral frontal cortex and its modulation by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation. Eur J Neurosci. 2001;14:1405–1411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
61.Paus, T, Wolforth, M. Transcranial magnetic stimulation during PET: reaching and verifying the target site. Hum Brain Mapp. 1998;6:399–402.3.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
62.Teneback, CC, Nahas, Z, Speer, AM, et al.Two weeks of daily left prefrontal rTMS changes prefrontal cortex and paralimbic activity in depression. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1999;11:426–435.Google ScholarPubMed
63.Shajahan, PM, Glabus, MF, Steele, JD, et al.Left dorso-lateral repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation affects cortical excitability and functional connectivity, but does not impair cognition in major depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2002;26:945–954.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
64.Mitchel, P. 15 Hz and 1 Hz TMS have different acute effects on cerebral blood flow in depressed patients. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2002;5:S7–S8.Google Scholar
65.Bohning, DE, Walker, JA, Mu, Q, Li, X, Denslow, S, George, MS. Interleaved paired pulse TMS and BOLD fMRI [abstract, special issue]. Magn Reson Med. 2003;133.Google Scholar
66.Nobler, MS, Oquendo, MA, Kegeles, LS, et al.Decreased regional brain metabolism after ECT. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:305–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
67.Speer, AM, Kimbrell, TA, Wasserman, EM, et al.Opposite effects of high and low frequency rTMS on regional brain activity in depressed patients. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;48:1133–1141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
68.George, MS, Bohning, DE. Measuring brain connectivity with functional imaging and transcranial magnetic stimulation. In: Desimone, B, ed. Neuropsychopharmacology, Fifth Generation of Progress. New York, NY: Lipincott, Williams and Wilkins; 2002:393–410.Google Scholar
69.Paus, T, Jech, R, Thompson, CJ, Comeau, R, Peters, T, Evans, AC. Transcranial magnetic stimulation during positron emission tomography: a new method for studying connectivity of the human cerebral cortex. J Neurosci. 1997;17:3178–3184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
70.George, MS, Ketter, TA, Post, RM. Prefrontal cortex dysfunction in clinical depression. Depression. 1994;2:59–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
71.George, MS, Ketter, TA, Post, RM. What Functional imaging studies have revealed about the brain basis of mood and emotion. In: Panksepp, J, ed. Advances in Biological Psychiatry. Greenwich, Conn: JAI Press; 1996:63–113.Google Scholar
72.George, MS, Post, RM, Ketter, TA, Kimbrell, TA. Neural mechanisms of mood disorders. In: Rush, AJ, ed. Current Review of Mood Disorders. Philadelphia, Pa: Current Medicine; 1995:1.Google Scholar
73.Mayberg, HS, Liotti, M, Brannan, SK, et al.Reciprocal limbic-cortical function and negative mood: converging PET findings in depression and normal sadness. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:675–682.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
74.Beer, B. Uber das Auftretten einer objectiven Lichtempfindung in magnetischen felde. Klin Wochenschr. 1902;15:108–109.Google Scholar
75.Kolbinger, HM, Hoflich, G, Hufnagel, A, Moller, H-J, Kasper, S. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in the treatment of major depression—a pilot study. Hum Psychopharmacol. 1995;10:305–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
76.Grisaru, N, Yarovslavsky, U, Abarbanel, J, Lamberg, T, Belmaker, RH. Transcranial magnetic stimulation in depression and schizophrenia. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 1994;4:287–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
77.Nobler, MS, Sackeim, HA, Prohovnik, I, al. e. Regional cerebral blood flow in mood disorders, III. Treatment and clinical response. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51:884–897.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
78.George, MS, Wassermann, EM, Williams, WA, et al.Daily repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation improves mood in depression. Neuroreport. 1995;6:1853–1856.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
79.George, MS, Wassermann, EM, Williams, WE, et al.Mood improvements following daily feft prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in patients with depression: a placebo-controlled crossover trial. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:1752–1756.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
80.George, MS, Wassermann, EM. Rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation and ECT. Convuls Ther. 1994;10:251–253.Google ScholarPubMed
81.Loo, C, Mitchell, P, Sachdev, P, McDarmont, B, Parker, G, Gandevia, S. A double-blind controlled investigation of transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of resistant major depression. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:946–948.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
82.Holtzheimer, PE, Russo, J, Avery, D. A meta-analysis of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depression. Psychopharmacology Bull. 2001;35:149–169.Google ScholarPubMed
83.Kozel, FA, George, MS. Meta-analysis of left prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to treat depression. Journal of Psychiatric Practice. 2002;8:270–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
84.Burt, T, Lisanby, SH, Sackeim, HA. Neuropsychiatric applications of transcranial magnetic stimulation. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2002;5:73–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
85.McNamara, B, Ray, JL, Arthurs, OJ, Boniface, S. Transcranial magnetic stimulation for depression and other psychiatric disorders. Psychol Med. 2001;31:1141–1146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
86.Martin, JLR, Barbanoj, MJ, Schlaepfer, TE, et al.Transcranial magnetic stimulation for treating depression (Cochrane Review). The Cochrane Library. Oxford, England: Update Software; 2002.Google Scholar
87.Grunhaus, L, Dannon, PN, Schreiber, S, et al.Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation is as effective as electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of non-delusional major depressive disorder: an open study. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;4:314–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
88.Grunhaus, L, Schreiber, S, Dolberg, OT, Polack, D, Dannon, PN. A randomized controlled comparison of ECT and rTMS in severe and resistant non-psychotic major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;53:324–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
89.Janicak, PG, Dowd, SM, Martis, B, et al.Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation versus electroconvulsive therapy for major depression: preliminary results of a randomized trial. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;51:659–667.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
90.Pridmore, S. Substitution of rapid transcranial magnetic stimulation treatments for electroconvulsive therapy treatments in a course of electroconvulsive therapy. Depress Anxiety. 2000;12:118–123.3.0.CO;2-G>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
91.Dannon, PN, Dolberg, OT, Schreiber, S, Grunhaus, L. Three and six-month outcome following courses of either ECT or rTMS in a population of severely depressed individuals: preliminary report. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;51:687–690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
92.Wu, JC, Bunney, WE. The biological basis of an antidepressant response to sleep deprivation and relapse: review and hypothesis. Am J Psychiatry. 1990;147:14–21.Google ScholarPubMed
93.Wu, JC, Gillin, JC, Buchsbaum, MS, Hershey, T, Johnson, JC, Bunney, WE. Effect of sleep deprivation on brain metabolism of depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry. 1992;149:538–543.Google ScholarPubMed
94.Ebert, D, Feistel, H, Barocka, A. Effects of sleep deprivation on the limbic system and the frontal lobes in affective disorders: a study with Tc-99m-HMPAO SPECT. Psychiatry Res. 1991;40:247–251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
95.Ebert, D, Feistel, H, Barocka, A, Kaschka, W. Increased limbic flow and total sleep deprivation in major depression with melancholia. Psychiatry Res. 1994;55:101–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
96.Padberg, F, Schule, C, Zwanzger, P, et al.Relation between responses to repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and partial sleep deprivation in major depression. J Psychiatr Res. 2002;36:131–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
97.Eichhammer, P, Kharraz, A, Wiegand, R, et al.Sleep deprivation in depression stabilizing antidepressant effects by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation. Life Sci. 2002;70:1741–1749.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
98.Pascual-Leone, A, Rubio, B, Pallardo, F, Catala, MD. Beneficial effect of rapidrate transcranial magnetic stimulation of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in drug-resistant depression. Lancet. 1996;348:233–237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
99.George, MS, Lydiard, RB. Speed of onset of action of the newer antidepressants: fluoxetine and buproprion. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1992;6:209–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
100.Garcia-Toro, M, Pascual-Leone, A, Romera, M, et al.Prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation as add-on treatment in depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;71:546–548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
101.Lisanby, SH, Pascual-Leone, A, Sampson, SM, et al.Augmentation of sertraline antidepressant treatment with transcranial magnetic stimulation [abstract]. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;49:81S.Google Scholar
102.Klein, E, Kreinin, I, Chistyakov, A, et al.Therapeutic efficacy of right prefrontal slow repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in major depression: A double-blind controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56:315–320.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
103.Herwig, U, Padberg, F, Unger, J, Spitzer, M, Schonfeldt-Lecuona, C. Transcranial magnetic stimulation in therapy studies: examination of the reliability of “standard” coil positioning by neuronavigation. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;50:58–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
104.McConnell, KA, Nahas, Z, Shastri, A, et al.The transcranial magnetic stimulation motor threshold depends on the distance from coil to underlying cortex: a replication in healthy adults comparing two methods of assessing the distance to cortex. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;49:454–459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
105.Mosimann, UP, Marre, SC, Werlen, S, et al.Antidepressant effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the elderly: correlation between effect size and coil-cortex distance. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59:560–561.Google ScholarPubMed
106.Padberg, F, Zwanzger, P, Keck, ME, et al.Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in major depression: relation between efficacy and stimulation intensity. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002;27:638–645.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
107.Kozel, FA, Nahas, Z, DeBrux, C, et al.How the distance from coil to cortex relates to age, motor threshold and possibly the antidepressant response to repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2000;12:376–384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
108.Nahas, Z, Oliver, NC, Johnson, M, et al.Feasibility and efficacy of left prefrontal rTMS as a maintenance antidepressant [abstract]. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;57.Google Scholar
109.Li, X, Teneback, CC, Nahas, Z, et al.Lamotrigine inhibits the functional magnetic resonance imaging response to transcranial magnetic stimulation in healthy adults [abstract]. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;51:8S.Google Scholar
110.George, MS, Stallings, LE, Speer, AM, et al.Prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) changes relative perfusion locally and remotely. Hum Psychopharmacol. 1999;14:161–170.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
111.Szuba, MP, Rai, A, Kastenberg, J, et al.Rapid mood and endocrine effects of TMS in major depression [abstract]. Proc Am Psychiatr Assoc Ann Meeting. 1999:201.Google Scholar
112.Nahas, Z, Kozel, FA, Li, X, Anderson, B, George, MS. Left prefrontal transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Treatment of Depression in Bipolar Affective Disorder: A Pilot Study of Acute Safety and Efficacy. Journal of Bipolar Disorders. 2003;5:40–47CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
113.Sackeim, HA, Decina, P, Malitz, S, Resor, SR, Prohovnik, I. Anticonvulsant and antidepressant properties of electroconvulsive therapy: a proposed mechanism of action. Biol Psychiatry. 1983;18:1301–1310.Google ScholarPubMed
114.Fujiki, M, Steward, O. High frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation mimics the effects of ECS in upregulating astroglial gene expression in the murine CNS. Mol Brain Res. 1997;44:301–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
115.Belmaker, RH, Grisaru, N. Magnetic stimulation of the brain in animal depression models responsive to ECS. J ECT. 1998;14:194–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
116.Ebert, U, Ziemann, U. Altered seizure susceptibility after high-frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation in rats. Neurosci Lett. 1999;273:155–158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
117.Triggs, WJ, McCoy, KJ, Greer, R, et al.Effects of left frontal transcranial magnetic stimulation on depressed mood, cognition, and corticomotor threshold. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;45:1440–1446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
118.Padberg, F. Zwanzger, P. Thoma, H. Kathmann, N. Haag, C. Greenberg, BD. Hampel, H. Moller, HJ. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in pharmacotherapy-refractory major depression: comparative study of fast, slow and sham rTMS. Psychiatr Res. 1119;88:163–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
119.George, MS, Nahas, Z, Molloy, M, et al.A controlled trial of daily transcranial magnetic stimulation of the left prefrontal cortex for treating depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;48:962–970.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
120.Pascual-Leone, A, Valls-Sole, J, Brasil-Neto, JP, Cohen, LG, Hallett, M. Akinesia in Parkinson's disease. I. Shortening of simple reaction times with focal, single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurology. 1994;44:884–891.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
121.Ghabra, MB, Hallett, M, Wassermann, EM. Simultaneous repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation does not speed fine movement in PD. Neurology. 1999;52:768–770.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
122.Boylan, LS, Pullman, SL, Lisanby, SH, Spicknall, KE, Sackeim, HA. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to SMA worsens complex movements in Parkinson's disease. Clin Neurophysiol. 2001;112:259–264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
123.Mally, J, Stone, TW. Therapeutic and “dose-dependent” effect of repetitive microelectroshock induced by transcranial magnetic stimulation in Parkinson's disease. J Neurosci Res. 1999;57:935–940.3.0.CO;2-8>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
124.Shimamoto, H, Morimitsu, H, Sugita, S, Nakahara, K, Shigemori, M. Therapeutic Effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in Parkinson's disease. Rinsho Shinkeigaku. 1999;39:1264–1267.Google ScholarPubMed
125.Siebner, HR, Tormos, JM, Ceballos-Baumann, AO, et al.Low frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of motor cortex in patients with writer's cramp. Neurology. 1999;52:529–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
126.Chae, JH, Nahas, Z, Wassermann, EM, et al.A pilot study using rTMS to probe the functional neuroanatomy of tics in Tourette syndrome. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol. In press.Google Scholar
127.Reutens, DC, Puce, A, Berkovic, SF. Cortical hyperexcitability in progressive myoclonus epilepsy: a study with transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurology. 1993;43:186–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
128.Wedegaertner, F, Garvey, M, Cohen, LG, Hallett, M, Wassermann, EM. Low frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation can reduce action myoclonus [abstract]. Neurology. 1997;48:119.Google Scholar
129.Theodore, WH, Hunter, K, Chen, R, et al.Transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of seizures: a controlled study. Neurology. 2002;59:560–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
130.Ziemann, U, Paulus, W, Rothenberger, A. Decreased motor inhibition in Tourette's disorder: evidence from transcranial magnetic stimulation. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:1277–1284.Google ScholarPubMed
131.Feinsod, M, Sreinin, B, Chistyakov, A, Klein, E. Preliminary evidence for a beneficial effect of low-frequency, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in patients with major depression and schizophrenia. Depress Anxiety. 1998;7:65–68.3.0.CO;2-4>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
132.Puri, BK, Davey, NJ, Ellaway, PH, Lewis, SW. An investigation of motor function in schizophrenia using transcranial magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex. Br J Psychiatry. 1996;169:690–695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
133.Davey, NJ, Puri, BK. On electromyographic responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex in schizophrenia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1997;63:468–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
134.Davey, NJ, Puri, BK, Lewis, HS, Ellaway, PH. Effects of antipsychotic medication on electromyographic responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex in schizophrenia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1997;63:468–473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
135.Hoffman, RE, Boutros, NN, Berman, RM, et al.Transcranial magnetic stimulation of left temporoparietal cortex in three patients reporting hallucinated “voices.” Biol Psychiatry. 1999;46:130–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
136.Hoffman, RE, Boutros, NN, Hu, S, Berman, RM, Krystal, JH, Charney, DS. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Lancet. 2000;355:1073–1075.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
137.d'Alfonso, AA, Aleman, A, Kessels, RP, et al.Transcranial magnetic stimulation of left auditory cortex in patients with schizophrenia: effects on hallucinations and neurocognition. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2002;14:77–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
138.Hoffman, RE, Cavus, I. Slow transcranial magnetic stimulation, long-term depotentiation, and brain hyperexcitability disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:1093–1102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
139.Nahas, Z, McConnell, K, Collins, S, et al.Could left prefrontal rTMS modify negative symptoms and attention in schizophrenia? Biol Psychiatry. 1999;45:120.Google Scholar
140.Klein, E, Kolsky, Y, Puyerovsky, M, Koren, D, Chistyakov, A, Feinsod, M. Right prefrontal slow repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in schizophrenia: a double-blind sham-controlled pilot study. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;46:1451–1454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
141.Greenberg, BD, George, MS, Dearing, J, et al.Effect of prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a preliminary study. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:867–869.Google ScholarPubMed
142.Cora-Locatelli, G, Greenberg, BD, Harmon, A, et al.Cortical excitability and augmentation strategies in OCD [abstract]. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;43:77s.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
143.Greenberg, BD, Ziemann, U, Cora-Locatelli, G, et al.Altered cortical excitability in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neurology. 2000;54:142–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
144.Alonso, P, Pujol, J, Cardoner, N, et al.Right prefrontal TMS in OCD: a doubleblind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:1143–1145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
145.Sachdev, PS, McBride, R, Loo, CK, Mitchell, PB, Malhi, GS, Croker, VM. Right versus left prefrontal transcranial magnetic stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a preliminary investigation. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62:981–984.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
146.McCann, UD, Kimbrell, TA, Morgan, CM, et al.Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for posttraumatic stress disorder [letter]. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:276–279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
147.Grisaru, N, Amir, M, Cohen, H, Kaplan, Z. Effect of transcranial magnetic stimulation in posttraumatic stress disorder: a preliminary study. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;44:52–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
148.Lefaucher, JP, Drouot, X, Nguyen, JP. Interventional neurophysiology for pain control: duration of pain relief following repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex. Neurophysiol Clin. 2001;31:247–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
149.Rollnik, JD, Wustefeld, S, Dauper, J, et al.Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of chronic pain: a pilot study. Eur Neurol. 2002;48:6–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
150.Topper, R, Mottaghy, FM, Brugmann, M, Noth, J, Huber, W. Facilitation of picture naming by focal transcranial magnetic stimulation of Wernicke's area. Exp Brain Res. 1998;121:371–378.Google ScholarPubMed
151.Boroojerdi, B, Phipps, M, Kopylev, L, Wharton, CM, Cohen, LG, Grafman, J. Enhancing analogic reasoning with rTMS over the left prefrontal cortex. Neurology. 2001;56:526–528.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
152.Bohning, DE. Introduction and overview of TMS physics. In: George, MS, Belmaker, RH, eds. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Neuropsychiatry. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 2000:13–44.Google Scholar
153.Alexander, GE, DeLong, MR, Strick, PL. Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Ann Rev Neurosci. 1986;9:357–381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
154.Roth, Y, Zangen, A, Hallett, M. A Coil design for transcranial magnetic stimulation of deep brain regions. J Clin Neurophysiol. In press.Google Scholar