Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T06:12:27.913Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

HIV-1 Infection, Neuroendocrine Abnormalities, and Clinical Outcomes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Abstract

Different lines of evidence suggest that human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection is complicated by a variety of adverse effects on neuroendocrine systems. Soon after the discovery of HIV-1, reports began to appear suggesting that a number of neurotransmitter and neuroendocrine activities were negatively impacted by this infection. In 1987 it was observed that fine-needle aspiration of the lung in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome resulted in syncopal reactions. Subsequently, an abnormality in the autonomic nervous system was reported in these patients. However, investigations in this area have remained limited due to the assumption that HIV-1–mediated activation of various endocrine systems was related to the major life stressor of living with a fatal disease. Evidence accumulated over the years has indicated, instead, that there are various other mechanisms in addition to life stressors that also play an important role in negatively impacting the neuroendocrine systems in this infection. This article examines various developments that have taken place in this area in order to provide avenues for future research.

Type
Feature Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.AIDS Epidemic Update: December 1999. Geneva, Switzerland: UNAIDS – Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS.Google Scholar
2.Chrousos, GP, Gold, PW. The concepts of stress and stress system disorders: overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. JAMA. 1992;267:12441252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3.Lee, KA. Transcriptional regulation by cAMP. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 1991;3:953959.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
4.Jin, WD, Boutillier, AL, Glucksman, MJ, Salton, SR, Loeffler, JP, Roberts, JL. Characterization of a corticotropin-releasing hormone-responsive element in the rat pro-opiomelanocortin gene promoter and molecular cloning of its binding protein. Mol Endocrinol. 1994;8:13771388.Google ScholarPubMed
5.Licinio, J, Gold, PW, Wong, M-L. A molecular mechanism for stress-induced alterations in susceptibility to disease. Lancet. 1995;346:104106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.Osborn, L, Kunkel, S, Nabel, GJ. Tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1 stimulate the human immunodeficiency virus enhancer by activation of the nuclear factor kappa B. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989;86:23362340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7.Tornatore, C, Nath, A, Amemiya, K, Major, EO. Persistent human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in human fetal glial cells reactivated by T-cell factor(s) or by the cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1 beta. J Virol. 1991;65:60946100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
8.Chrousos, GP, Kino, T. The HIV Vpr gene product can cause glucocorticoid hypersensitivity or resistance: implications for the pathogenesis and clinical presentation of AIDS. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1997;22:S160.Google Scholar
9.Kino, T, Gragerov, A, Kopp, JB, Stauber, RH, Pavlakis, GN, Chrousos, GP. The HIV-1 viron associated protein Vpr is a coactivator of the human glucocorticoid receptor. J Exp Med. 1999;189:5162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
10.Goh, WC, Rogel, ME, Kinsey, CM, et al.HIV-1 Vpr increases viral expression by manipulation of the cell cycle. Nature Med. 1998;4:6571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
11.Heinzinger, NK, Bukinsky, MI, Haggerty, SA, et al.The Vpr protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 influences nuclear localization of viral nucleic acid of non-dividing host cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1994;91:73117315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
12.Gallay, P, Hope, T, Chin, D, Trono, D. HIV-1 infection of non-dividing cells through the recognition of integrase by the importin/karyo-pherin pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1997;94:98259830.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
13.Soudeyns, H, Geleziunas, R, Shyamala, G, Hiscott, J, Wainberg, MA. Identification of a novel glucocorticoid response element within the genome of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Virology. 1993;194:758768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
14.Wiley, CA, Soontornniyomkij, V, Radhakrishnan, L, et al.Distribution of brain HIV load in AIDS. Brain Pathol. 1998;8:277284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
15.Fujimura, RK, Bockstahler, LE. PCR method for determining ratios of HIV proviral DNA to cellular genomic DNA in brain tissue in HIV-infected patients. J Virol Methods. 1995;55:309325.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16.Fujimura, RK, Goodkin, K, Petito, CK, et al.HIV-1 proviral DNA load across neuroanatomic regions of individuals with evidence for HIV-1–associated dementia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1997;16:146152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
17.McEwen, BS. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:171179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
18.Sapolsky, RM. Why stress is bad for your brain. Science. 1996;273:749750.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Freeman, R, Roberts, MS, Friedman, LS, Broadbridge, C. Autonomic function and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Neurology. 1990;40:575580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20.Kumar, M, Morgan, R, Szapocznik, J, Eisdorfer, C. Norepinephrine response in early HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1991;4:782786.Google ScholarPubMed
21.Kumar, M, Kumar, AM, Morgan, R, Szapocznik, J, Eisdorfer, C. Abnormal pituitary-adrenocortical response in early HIV-1 infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1993;6:6165.Google ScholarPubMed
22.Pike, JL, Smith, TL, Hauger, RL, et al.Chronic life stress alters sympathetic, neuroendocrine, and immune responsivity to an acute psychological stressor in humans. Psychosom Med. 1997;59:447457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
23.Holsboer, F, Spengler, D, Heuser, I. The role of corticotropin-releasing hormone in the pathogenesis of Cushing's disease, anorexia nervosa, alcoholism, affective disorders and dementia. Prog Brain Res. 1992;93:385417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
24.Owens, MJ, Nemeroff, CB. Physiology and pharmacology of corticotropin-releasing factor. Pharmacol Rev. 1991;43:425473.Google ScholarPubMed
25.Antoni, MH, Bagget, HL, Ironson, G, Schneiderman, N. Cognitive behavior stress management intervention buffers distress response following notification of HIV seropositivity. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1991;59:906915.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
26.Goodkin, K, Feaster, DJ, Asthana, D, et al.A bereavement support group intervention is longitudinally associated with salutary effects on the CD4 cell count and on number of physician visits. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1998;5:382391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
27.Lightman, S. Neuroendocrine correlates of chronic inflammatory disease. Paper presented at: 29th Annual Meeting of ISPNE; 1998; Trier, Germany.Google Scholar
28.Antoni, FA. Vasopressinergic control of pituitary adrenocorticotropin secretion comes of age. Front Neuroendocrinal. 1993;14:76122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
29.Goodkin, K, Shapshak, P, Fujimura, RK, et al.Immune function, brain, and HIV-1 infection. In: Goodkin, K, Visser, AP, eds. Psychoneuroimmunology: Stress, Mental Disorders and Health. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc; 2000:243316.Google Scholar
30.Lipton, SA, Gendelman, HE. Dementia associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:934940.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31.Shapshak, P, Fujimura, RK, Srivastava, A, Goodkin, K. Dementia and the neurovirulence of HIV-1. International Journal of Neuropsychiatry Medicine. In press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
32.Meyaard, L, Otto, SA, Keet, IPM, Van Lier, RAW, Miedema, F. Changes in cytokine patterns of CD4+ T-cell clones in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Blood. 1994;84:42624268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33.Clerici, M, Bevilacqua, M, Vago, T, Villa, ML, Shearer, GM, Norbiato, G. An immunoen-docrinological hypothesis of HIV infection. Lancet. 1994;343:15521553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34.Marfaing-Koka, A, Aubin, J-T, Grangeot-Keros, L, et al.In vivo role of IL-6 on the viral load and on immunological abnormalities of HIV-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1996;11:5968.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35.Papanicolaou, DA, Wilder, RL, Manolagas, SC, Chrousos, GP. The pathophysiologic role of interleukin-6 in human disease. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128:127137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36.Vassilakopoulos, T, Zakynthinos, S, Roussos, C. Strenuous resistive breathing induces proinflammatory cytokines and stimulates the HPA axis in humans. Am J Physiol. 1999;277(suppl 4, pt 2):R1013R1019.Google ScholarPubMed
37.Naitoh, Y, Fukata J, Tominagaet al.Interleukin-6 stimulates the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone in conscious, freely moving rats. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1988;155:14591463.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
38.Tsigos, C, Papinocolaou, DA, Defensor, R, Mitsiadis, CS, Kyrou, I, Chrousos, GP. Dose-effects of recombinant human interleukin-6 on pituitary hormone secretion and energy expenditure. Neuroendocrinology. 1997;66:5462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39.Mastorakos, G, Chrousos, GP, Weber, JS. Recombinant interleukin-6 activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1993;77:16901694.Google ScholarPubMed
40.Brenuiger, LM, Dempsey, WL, Uhl, J, Murasko, DM. Hydrocortisone regulation of interleukin-6 protein production by a purified population of human peripheral blood monocytes. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1993;69:205214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41.Rock, CS, Coyle, SM, Keogh, CV, et al.Influence of hypercortisolemia on the acute-phase protein response to endotoxins in humans. Surgery. 1992;112:467474.Google ScholarPubMed