Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T16:39:32.836Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Medically Ill Patients: What is Known, What Needs to be Determined, and Why is it Important?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2014

Eyal Shemesh  and
Margaret L. Stuber
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Can a medical illness or its treatment qualify as an emotionally traumatic event and can it cause posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms? If so, can the view of a medical illness as a traumatic experience enhance our ability to understand patients' adjustment to illness and their emotional reactions to it? Is it important to identify posttraumatic symptoms and try to address them in medically ill patients? These questions form the backbone for this review. Because many questions remain unanswered (or the answers are not definitive yet), we concisely summarize the issues and present our own view of the most pressing questions for further research.

Type
Review Articles
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 11 , Issue 2 , February 2006 , pp. 106 - 117
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

1.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
2.Pelcovitz, D, Goldenberg, B, Kaplan, S, et al.Posttraumatic stress disorder in mothers of pediatric cancer survivors. Psychosomatics. 1996;37:116–126.Google Scholar
3.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. text rev. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.Google Scholar
4.Saxe, G, Stoddard, F, Courtney, D, et al.Relationship between acute morphine and the course of PTSD in children with burns. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40:915–921.Google Scholar
5.Breslau, N. Epidemiologic studies of trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and other psychiatric disorders. Can J Psychiatry. 2002;47:923–929.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.Andrykowski, MA, Cordova, MJ. Factors associated with PTSD symptoms following treatment for breast cancer: test of the Andersen model. J Trauma Stress. 1998;11:189–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7.Andrykowski, MA, Cordova, MJ, McGrath, PC, Sloan, DA, Kenady, DE. Stability and change in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms following breast cancer treatment: a 1-year follow-up. Psychooncology. 2000;9:69–78.Google Scholar
8.Andrykowski, MA, Cordova, MJ, Studts, JL, Miller, TW. Posttraumatic stress disorder after treatment for breast cancer: prevalence of diagnosis and use of the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C) as a screening instrument. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1998;66:586–590.Google Scholar
9.Barakat, LP, Kazak, AE, Meadows, AT, Casey, R, Meeske, K, Stuber, ML. Families surviving childhood cancer: a comparison of posttraumatic stress symptoms with families of healthy children. J Pediatr Psychol. 1997;22:843–859.Google Scholar
10.Butler, RW, Rizzi, LP, Handwerger, BA. Brief report: the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder in pediatric cancer patients and survivors. J Pediatr Psychol. 1996;21:499–504.Google Scholar
11.Cordova, MJ, Andrykowski, MA, Kenady, DE, McGrath, PC, Sloan, DA, Redd, WH. Frequency and correlates of posttraumatic-stress-disorder-like symptoms after treatment for breast cancer. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1995;63:981–986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
12.Cordova, MJ, Studts, JL, Hann, DM, Jacobsen, PB, Andrykowski, MA. Symptom structure of PTSD following breast cancer. J Trauma Stress. 2000;13:301–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
13.Erickson, SJ, Steiner, H. Trauma and personality correlates in long-term pediatric cancer survivors. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2001;3:195–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14.Erickson, SJ, Steiner, H. Trauma spectrum adaptation: somatic symptoms in long-term pediatric cancer survivors. Psychosomatics. 2000;41:339–346.Google Scholar
15.Green, BL, Rowland, JH, Krupnick, JL, et al.Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in women with breast cancer. Psychosomatics. 1998;39:102–111.Google Scholar
16.Hampton, MR, Frombach, I. Women's experience of traumatic stress in cancer treatment. Health Care Women Int. 2000;21:67–76.Google Scholar
17.Heiney, SP, Neuberg, RW, Myers, D, Bergman, LH. The aftermath of bone marrow transplant for parents of pediatric patients: a post-traumatic stress disorder. Oncol Nurs Forum. 1994;21:843–847.Google ScholarPubMed
18.Hobbie, WL, Stuber, M, Meeske, K, et al.Symptoms of posttraumatic stress in young adult survivors of childhood cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:4060–4066.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Jacobsen, PB, Sadler, IJ, Booth-Jones, M, Soety, E, Weitzner, MA, Fields, KK. Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology following bone marrow transplantation for cancer. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2002;70:235–240.Google Scholar
20.Jacobsen, PB, Widows, MR, Hann, DM, Andrykowski, MA, Kronish, LE, Fields, KK. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms after bone marrow transplantation for breast cancer. Psychosom Med. 1998;60:366–371.Google Scholar
21.Kazak, AE, Barakat, LP, Meeske, K, et al.Posttraumatic stress, family functioning, and social support in survivors of childhood leukemia and their mothers and fathers. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1997;65:120–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22.Kazak, AE, Stuber, ML, Barakat, LP, Meeske, K, Guthrie, D, Meadows, AT. Predicting posttraumatic stress symptoms in mothers and fathers of survivors of childhood cancers. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998;37:823–831.Google Scholar
23.Malt, UF, Tjemsland, L. PTSD in women with breast cancer. Psychosomatics. 1999;40:89.Google Scholar
24.Manne, SL, Du Hamel, K, Gallelli, K, Sorgen, K, Redd, WH. Posttraumatic stress disorder among mothers of pediatric cancer survivors: diagnosis, comorbidity, and utility of the PTSD checklist as a screening instrument. J Pediatr Psychol. 1998;23:357–366.Google Scholar
25.Meeske, KA, Ruccione, K, Globe, DR, Stuber, ML. Posttraumatic stress, quality of life, and psychological distress in young adult survivors of childhood cancer. Oncol Nurs Forum. 2001;2:481–489.Google Scholar
26.Mundy, EA, Blanchard, EB, Cirenza, E, Gargiulo, J, Maloy, B, Blanchard, CG. Posttraumatic stress disorder in breast cancer patients following autologous bone marrow transplantation or conventional cancer treatments. Behav Res Ther. 2000;38:1015–1027.Google Scholar
27.Neel, ML. Posttraumatic stress symptomatology and cancer. Int J Emerg Ment Health. 2000;2:85–94.Google Scholar
28.Alter, CL, Pelcovitz, D, Axelrod, A, et al.Identification of PTSD in cancer survivors. Psychosomatics. 1996;37:137–143.Google Scholar
29.Pelcovitz, D, Libov, BG, Mandel, F, Kaplan, S, Weinblatt, M, Septimus, A. Posttraumatic stress disorder and family functioning in adolescent cancer. J Trauma Stress. 1998;11:205–221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30.Pitman, RK, Lanes, DM, Williston, SK, et al.Psychophysiologic assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder in breast cancer patients. Psychosomatics. 2001;42:133–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
31.Rourke, MT, Stuber, ML, Hobbie, WL, Kazak, AE. Posttraumatic stress disorder: understanding the psychosocial impact of surviving childhood cancer into young adulthood. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs. 1999;16:126–135.Google ScholarPubMed
32.Smith, MY, Redd, W, DuHamel, K, Vickberg, SJ, Ricketts, P. Validation of the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version in survivors of bone marrow transplantation. J Trauma Stress. 1999;12:485–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
33.Smith, MY, Redd, WH, Peyser, C, Vogl, D. Post-traumatic stress disorder in cancer: a review. Psychooncology. 1999;8:521–5373.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
34.Stuber, ML, Nader, K, Yasuda, P, Pynoos, RS, Cohen, S. Stress responses after pediatric bone marrow transplantation: preliminary results of a prospective longitudinal study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1991;30:952–957Google Scholar
35.Stuber, ML. Psychiatric aspects of organ transplantation in children and adolescents. Psychosomatics. 1993;34:379–387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
36.Stuber, ML. Psychiatric sequelae in seriously ill children and their families. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1996;19:481–493.Google Scholar
37.Stuber, ML, Christakis, DA, Houskamp, B, Kazak, AE. Posttrauma symptoms in childhood leukemia survivors and their parents. Psychosomatics. 1996;37:254–261.Google Scholar
38.Stuber, ML, Nader, KO, Houskamp, BM, Pynoos, RS. Appraisal of life threat and acute trauma responses in pediatric bone marrow transplant patients. J Trauma Stress. 1996;9:673–686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
39.Stuber, ML, Kazak, AE, Meeske, K, et al.Predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms in childhood cancer survivors. Pediatrics. 1997;100:958–964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.Stuber, ML, Kazak, AE, Meeske, K, Barakat, L. Is posttraumatic stress a viable model for understanding responses to childhood cancer? Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 1998;7:169–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41.Tjemsland, L, Soreide, JA, Malt, UF. Posttraumatic distress symptoms in operable breast cancer III: status one year after surgery. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1998;47:141–151.Google Scholar
42.Widows, MR, Jacobsen, PB, Fields, KK. Relation of psychological vulnerability factors to posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology in bone marrow transplant recipients. Psychosom Med. 2000;62:873–882.Google Scholar
43.Falger, PR, Op den Velde, W, Hovens, JE, Schouten, EG, De Groen, JH, Van Duijn, H. Current posttraumatic stress disorder and cardiovascular disease risk factors in Dutch Resistance veterans from World War II. Psychother Psychosom. 1992;57:164–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
44.Alonzo, AA. Acute myocardial infarction and posttraumatic stress disorder: the consequences of cumulative adversity. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 1999;13:33–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45.Bennett, P, Conway, M, Clatworthy, J, Brooke, S, Owen, R. Predicting post-traumatic symptoms in cardiac patients. Heart Lung. 2001;30:458–465.Google Scholar
46.Doerfler, LA, Pbert, L, DeCosimo, D. Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder following myocardial infarction and coronary artery bypass surgery. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1994;16:193–199.Google Scholar
47.Kutz, I, Garb, R, David, D. Post-traumatic stress disorder following myocardial infarction. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1988;10:169–176.Google Scholar
48.Kutz, I, Shabtai, H, Solomon, Z, Neumann, M, David, D. Post-traumatic stress disorder in myocardial infarction patients: prevalence study. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci. 1994;31:48–56.Google ScholarPubMed
49.Shemesh, E, Rudnick, A, Kaluski, E, et al.A prospective study of posttraumatic stress symptoms and nonadherence in survivors of a myocardial infarction (MI). Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2001;23:215–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50.Shemesh, E, Yehuda, R, Milo, O, et al.Posttraumatic stress, nonadherence, and adverse outcome in survivors of a myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med. 2004;66:521–526.Google Scholar
51.Shemesh, E, Michovitz, M, Yehuda, R, et al.Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in patients who had a myocardial infarction. Psychosomatics. 2005: In press.Google Scholar
52.Pedersen, SS, van Domburg, RT, Larsen, ML. The effect of low social support on short-term prognosis in patients following a first myocardial infarction. Scand J Psychol. 2004;45:313–318.Google Scholar
53.Dew, MA, Kormos, RL, Roth, LH, Murali, S, DiMartini, A, Griffith, BP. Early post-transplant medical compliance and mental health predict physical morbidity and mortality one to three years after heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 1999;18:549–562.Google Scholar
54.Dew, MA, Roth, LH, Schulberg, HC, et al.Prevalence and predictors of depression and anxiety-related disorders during the year after heart transplantation. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1996;18(6 suppl):48S–61S.Google Scholar
55.Stukas, AA Jr, Dew, MA, Switzer, GE, DiMartini, A, Kormos, RL, Griffith, BP. PTSD in heart transplant recipients and their primary family caregivers. Psychosomatics. 1999;40:212–221.Google Scholar
56.Kelly, B, Raphael, B, Judd, F, Perdices, M, Kernutt, G, Burnett, P, Dunne, M, Burrows, G. Posttraumatic stress disorder in response to HIV infection. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1998;20:345–352.Google Scholar
57.Safren, SA, Gershuny, BS, Hendriksen, E. Symptoms of posttraumatic stress and death anxiety in persons with HIV and medication adherence difficulties. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2003;17:657–664.Google Scholar
58.Delahanty, DL, Bogart, LM, Figler, JL. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, salivary cortisol, medication adherence, and CD4 levels in HIV-positive individuals. AIDS Care. 2004;16:247–260.Google Scholar
59.Goodwin, RD, Davidson, JR. Self-reported diabetes and posttraumatic stress disorder among adults in the community. Prev Med. 2005;40:570–574.Google Scholar
60.Landolt, MA, Boehler, U, Schwager, C, Schallberger, U, Nuessli, R. Post-traumatic stress disorder in paediatric patients and their parents: an exploratory study. J Paediatr Child Health. 1998;34:539–543.Google Scholar
61.Stuber, ML. Psychiatric sequelae in seriously ill children and their families. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1996;19:481–493.Google Scholar
62.Landolt, MA, Vollrath, M, Laimbacher, J, Gnehm, HE, Sennhauser, FH. Prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder in parents of children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005;44:682–689.Google Scholar
63.Landolt, MA, Ribi, K, Laimbacher, J, Vollrath, M, Gnehm, HE, Sennhauser, FH. Posttraumatic stress disorder in parents of children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes. J Pediatr Psychol. 2002;27:647–652.Google Scholar
64.Shemesh, E, Newcorn, JH, Rockmore, L, et al.Comparison of parent and child reports of emotional trauma symptoms in pediatric outpatient settings. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e582–e589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
65.Young, GS, Mintzer, LL, Seacord, D, Castaneda, M, Mesrkhani, V, Stuber, ML. Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in parents of transplant recipients: incidence, severity, and related factors. Pediatrics. 2003;111(6 pt 1):e725–e731.Google Scholar
66.Shemesh, E, Lurie, S, Stuber, ML, et al.A pilot study of posttraumatic stress and nonadherence in pediatric liver transplant recipients. Pediatrics. 2000;105(2):E29.Google Scholar
67.Walker, AM, Harris, G, Baker, A, Kelly, D, Houghton, J. Post-traumatic stress responses following liver transplantation in older children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1999;40:363–374.Google Scholar
68.Mintzer, LL, Stuber, ML, Seacord, D, Castaneda, M, Mesrkhani, V, Glover, D. Traumatic stress symptoms in adolescent organ transplant recipients. Pediatrics. 2005;115:1640–1644.Google Scholar
69.Connolly, D, McClowry, S, Hayman, L, Mahony, L, Artman, M. Posttraumatic stress disorder in children after cardiac surgery. J Pediatr. 2004;144:480–484Google Scholar
70.Wolmer, L, Laor, N, Gershon, A, Mayes, LC, Cohen, DJ. The mother-child dyad facing trauma: a developmental outlook. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2000;188:409–415.Google Scholar
71.Yehuda, R, ed. Risk Factors for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press: 1999.Google Scholar
72.Tedstone, JE, Tarrier, N. Posttraumatic stress disorder following medical illness and treatment. Clin Psychol Rev. 2003;23:409–448.Google Scholar
73.Katz, S, Nevid, JS. Risk factors associated with posttraumatic stress disorder symptomatology in HIV-infected women. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2005;19:110–120.Google Scholar
74.Pedersen, SS, Denollet, J. Validity of the Type D personality construct in Danish post-MI patients and healthy controls. J Psychosom Res. 2004;57:265–272.Google Scholar
75.Dew, MA, Kormos, RL, DiMartini, AF, et al.Prevalence and risk of depression and anxiety-related disorders during the first three years after heart transplantation. Psychosomatics. 2001;42:300–313.Google Scholar
76.Dew, MA, Myaskovsky, L, Switzer, GE, DiMartini, AF, Schulberg, HC, Kormos, RL. Profiles and predictors of the course of psychological distress across four years after heart transplantation. Psychol Med 2005;35:1215–1227Google Scholar
77.Shemesh, E, Bartell, A, Newcorn, J. Assessment and treatment of depressive disorders in medically ill children. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2002;4:88–92.Google Scholar
78.Glover, DA, Poland, RE. Urinary cortisol and catecholamines in mothers of child cancer survivors with and without PTSD. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2002;27:805–819Google Scholar
79.Schwartz, L, Drotar, D. Posttraumatic stress and related impairment in survivors of childhood cancer in early adulthood compared to healthy peers. J Pediatr Psychol. 2005 03 23: [Epub ahead of print].Google ScholarPubMed
80.Fagan, J, Galea, S, Ahern, J, Bonner, S, Vlahov, D. Relationship of self-reported asthma severity and urgent health care utilization to psychological sequelae of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center among New York City area residents. Psychosom Med. 2003;65:993–996.Google Scholar
81.Kramer, TL, Booth, BM, Han, X, Williams, DK. Service utilization and outcomes in medically ill veterans with posttraumatic stress and depressive disorders. J Trauma Stress. 2003;16:211–219.Google Scholar
82.Calhoun, PS, Bosworth, HB, Grambow, SC, Dudley, TK, Beckham, JC. Medical service utilization by veterans seeking help for posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:2081–2086.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
83.Shemesh, E, Keshavarz, R, Leichtling, NK, et al.Pediatric emergency department assessment of psychological trauma and posttraumatic stress. Psychiatr Serv. 2003;54:1277–1281.Google Scholar
84.Deykin, EY, Keane, TM, Kaloupek, D, et al.Posttraumatic stress disorder and the use of health services. Psychosom Med. 2001;63:835–841.Google Scholar
85.Frasure-Smith, N, Lesperance, F. Reflections on depression as a cardiac risk factor. Psychosom Med. 2005;6(suppl 1):S19–S25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
86.Frayne, SM, Seaver, MR, Loveland, S, et al.Burden of medical illness in women with depression and posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164:1306–1312.Google Scholar
87.Ouimette, P, Cronkite, R, Henson, BR, Prins, A, Gima, K, Moos, RH. Posttraumatic stress disorder and health status among female and male medical patients. J Trauma Stress. 2004;17:1–9.Google Scholar
88.Foa, EB. Psychosocial treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61(suppl 5):43–48.Google Scholar
89.Friedman, MJ, Donnelly, CL, Mellman, TA. Pharmacotherapy for PTSD. Psychiatr Ann. 2003;33:57–62.Google Scholar
90.Brady, K, Pearlstein, T, Asnis, GM, et al.Efficacy and safety of sertraline treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA. 2000;283:1837–1844.Google Scholar
91.Davidson, JR, Rothbaum, BO, van der Kolk, BA, Sikes, CR, Farfel, GM. Multicenter, double-blind comparison of sertraline and placebo in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:485–492.Google Scholar
92.Marshall, RD, Beebe, KL, Oldham, M, Zaninelli, R. Efficacy and safety of paroxetine treatment of chronic PTSD: a fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:1982–1988.Google Scholar
93.Tucker, P, Zaninelli, R, Yehuda, R, Ruggiero, L, Dillingham, K, Pitts, CD. Paroxetine in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62:860–868.Google Scholar
94.Zatzick, D, Roy-Byrne, P. Psychopharmacologic approaches to the management of posttraumatic stress disorders in the acute care medical sector. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry. 2000; 8:168–174.Google Scholar
95.Yehuda, R, ed. Psychological Trauma. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1998.Google Scholar